The
aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different modified fats on the body weight,
biochemical profile, and biomarkers of hepatic oxidative status in Balb-cmice. The animals
were divided into four groups and fed for 75 days with a normolipidic (Control Group, CG) or hiperlipidic diets (40% kcal) containing
a commercial interesterified fat (IFG) rich in palmitic acid (39%); a blend of
non-interesterified fat (NIFG), with 2-fold less saturated fatty acids at the sn-2 position of
triacylglycerols; or a partially hydrogenated
vegetable oil (PHFG), source of trans fatty
acid (20%) and of linolenic acid (6%). The mice of the IFG and NIFG presented
similar results in all evaluated parameters. The serum biochemical profile and
hepatic oxidative stress markers in mice of the PHFG were similar to CG, except
for total cholesterol (TC) which was significantly higher (p < 0.05) for the
mice of the PHFG. The mice feed with interesterified fat (IFG) showed
serum TC (p < 0.01), non-HDL-C (p < 0.05), glucose (p < 0.05) and
hepatic reduced glutathione values (2.7 fold, p < 0.05) and glutathione
reductase activity (2.4 fold, p < 0.001) significantly higher when compared
to the mice fed with partially
hydrogenated vegetable oil (PHFG). The hydrogenated fat source of trans fatty
acid (20%) had less important metabolic effects than fats containing
References
[1]
Mensink, R.P., Sanders, T.A., Baer, D.J., Hayes, K.C., Howles, P.N. and Marangoni, A. (2016) The Increasing Use of Interesterified Lipids in the Food Supply and Their Effects on Health Parameters. Advances in Nutrition, 7, 719-729. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.115.009662
[2]
Mensink, R.P. and Katan, M.B. (1990) Effect of Dietary Trans Fatty Acids on High-Density and Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Levels in Healthy Subjects. The New England Journal of Medicine, 323, 439-445. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199008163230703
[3]
Zock, P.L. and Mensink, R.P. (1996) Dietary Trans-Fatty Acids and Serum Lipoproteins in Humans. Current Opinion in Lipidology, 7, 34-37. https://doi.org/10.1097/00041433-199602000-00008
[4]
Itcho, K., Yoshii, Y., Ohno, H., Oki, K., Shinohara, M., Irino, Y., Toh, R., Ishida, T., Hirata, K.I. and Yoneda, M. (2017) Association between Serum Elaidic Acid Concentration and Insulin Resistance in Two Japanese Cohorts with Different Lifestyles. Journal of Atherosclerosis and Thrombosis, 24, 1206-1214. https://doi.org/10.5551/jat.39164
[5]
Liu, B., Sun, Y., Snetselaar, L.G., Sun, Q., Yang, Q., Zhang, Z., Liu, L., Hu, F.B. and Bao, W. (2018) Association between Plasma Trans-Fatty Acid Concentrations and Diabetes in a Nationally Representative Sample of US Adults. Journal of Diabetes, 10, 653-664. https://doi.org/10.1111/1753-0407.12652
[6]
Chajès, V., Thiébaut, A.C., Rotival, M., Gauthier, E., Maillard, V., Boutron-Ruault, et al. (2008) Association between Serum Trans-Monounsaturated Fatty Acids and Breast Cancer Risk in the E3N-EPIC Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 167, 1312-1320. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn069
[7]
Hirko, K.A., Chai, B., Spiegelman, D., Campos, H., Farvid, M.S., Hankinson, S.E., et al. (2018) Erythrocyte Membrane Fatty Acids and Breast Cancer Risk: A Prospective Analysis in the Nurses’ Health Study II. International Journal of Cancer, 142, 1116-1129. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.31133
[8]
WHO World Health Organization (2018) Replace Trans Fat by 2023: An Action Package to Eliminate Industrially-Produced Trans Fat from the Global Food Supply. https://www.who.int/news/item/14-05-2018-who-plan-to-eliminate-industrially-produced-trans-fatty-acids-from-global-food-supply
[9]
Ghebreyesus, T.A. and Frieden, T.R. (2018) REPLACE: A Roadmap to Make the World Trans Fat Free by 2023. Lancet (London, England), 391, 1978-1980. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31083-3
[10]
Mills, C.E., Hall, W.L. and Berry, S. (2017) What Are Interesterified Fats and Should We Be Worried about Them in Our Diet? Nutrition Bulletin, 42, 153-158. https://doi.org/10.1111/nbu.12264
[11]
Berry, S.E. (2009) Triacylglycerol Structure and Interesterification of Palmitic and Stearic Acid-Rich Fats: An Overview and Implications for Cardiovascular Disease. Nutrition Research Reviews, 22, 3-17. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954422409369267
[12]
Alfieri, A., Imperlini, E., Nigro, E., Vitucci, D., Orrù, S., Daniele, A., et al. (2017) Effects of Plant Oil Interesterified Triacylglycerols on Lipemia and Human Health. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 19, 104. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19010104
[13]
Van Rooijen, M.A. and Mensink, R.P. (2020) Palmitic Acid versus Stearic Acid: Effects of Interesterification and Intakes on Cardiometabolic Risk Markers—A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 12, 615. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030615
[14]
Sundram, K., Karupaiah, T. and Hayes, K.C. (2007) Stearic Acid-Rich Interesterified Fat and Trans-Rich Fat Raise the LDL/HDL Ratio and Plasma Glucose Relative to Palm Olein in Humans. Nutrition & Metabolism, 4, 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-7075-4-3
[15]
Sharma, M. and Lokesh, B.R. (2013) Modification of Serum and Tissue Lipids in Rats Fed with Blended and Interesterified Oils Containing Groundnut Oil with Linseed Oil. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 37, 220-230. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4514.2011.00627.x
[16]
Reena, M.B. and Lokesh, B.R. (2012) Effect of Blending and Lipase Catalyzed Interesterification Reaction on the Cholesterol Lowering Properties of Palm Oil with Rice Bran Oil in Rats. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 47, 203-209. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2011.02827.x
[17]
O’Fallon, J.V., Busboom, J.R., Nelson, M.L. and Gaskins, C.T. (2007) A Direct Method for Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Synthesis: Application to Wet Meat Tissues, Oils, and Feedstuffs. Journal of Animal Science, 85, 1511-1521. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2006-491
[18]
Vlahov, G. (1998) Regiospecific Analysis of Natural Mixtures of Triglycerides Using Quantitative 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance of Acyl Chain Carbonyl Carbons. Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry, 36, 359-362. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-458X(199805)36:5<359::AID-OMR274>3.0.CO;2-Z
[19]
Segura, N., Da Silva, R.C., Soares, F.A.S.M., Gioielli, L.A. and Jachmanián, I. (2011) Valorization of Beef Tallow by Lipase-Catalyzed Interesterification with High Oleic Sunflower Oil. JAOCS, Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 88, 1945-1954. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-011-1876-y
[20]
Gouk, S.W., Cheng, S.F., Ong, A.S. and Chuah, C.H. (2014) Stearic Acids at sn-1, 3 Positions of TAG Are More Efficient at Limiting Fat Deposition than Palmitic and Oleic Acids in C57BL/6 Mice. The British Journal of Nutrition, 111, 1174-1180. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114513003668
[21]
Bucolo, G. and David, H. (1973) Quantitative Determination of Serum Triglycerides by the Use of Enzymes. Clinical Chemistry, 19, 476-482. https://doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/19.5.476
[22]
Allain, C.C., Poon, L.S., Chan, C.S., Richmond, W. and Fu, P.C. (1974) Enzymatic Determination of Total Serum Cholesterol. Clinical Chemistry, 20, 470-475. https://doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/20.4.470
[23]
Sugiuchi, H., Uji, Y., Okabe, H., Irie, T., Uekama, K., Kayahara, N. and Miyauchi, K. (1995) Direct Measurement of High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol in Serum with Polyethylene Glycol-Modified Enzymes and Sulfated Alpha-Cyclodextrin. Clinical Chemistry, 41, 717-723. https://doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/41.5.717
[24]
Trinder, P. (1969) Determination of Blood Glucose Using an Oxidase-Peroxidase System with a Non-Carcinogenic Chromogen. Journal of Clinical Pathology, 22, 158-161. https://doi.org/10.1136/jcp.22.2.158
[25]
Rej, R. and Horder, M. (1983) Aspartate Aminotranspherase. In: Bergmeyer, H.U., Bergmeyer, J. and Grassl, M., Eds., Methods of Enzymatic Analysis, 3rd Edition, Verlag Chemie, Weinheim, 416-433.
[26]
Misra, H.P. and Fridovich, I. (1972) The Role of Superoxide Anion in the Autoxidation of Epinephrine and a Simple Assay for Superoxide Dismutase. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 247, 3170-3175
[27]
Aebi, H. (1984) Catalase in Vitro. Methods in Enzymology, 105, 121-126. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0076-6879(84)05016-3
[28]
Flohé, L. and Günzler, W.A. (1984) Assays of Glutathione Peroxidase. Methods in Enzymology, 105, 114-121. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0076-6879(84)05015-1
[29]
Carlberg, I. and Mannervik, B. (1985) Glutathione Reductase. Methods in Enzymology, 113, 484-490. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0076-6879(85)13062-4
[30]
Beutler, E., Duron, O. and Kelly, B.M. (1963) Improved Method for the Determination of Blood Glutathione. The Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine, 61, 882-888.
[31]
Lowry, O.H., Rosebrough, N.J., Farr, A.L. and Randall, R.J. (1951) Protein Measurement with the Folin Phenol Reagent. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 193, 265-275.
[32]
Bird, R.P. and Draper, H.H. (1984) Comparative Studies on Different Methods of Malonaldehyde Determination. Methods in Enzymology, 105, 299-305. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0076-6879(84)05038-2
[33]
Levine, R.L., Garland, D., Oliver, C.N., Amici, A., Climent, I., Lenz, A.G., et al. (1990) Determination of Carbonyl Content in Oxidatively Modified Proteins. Methods in Enzymology, 186, 464-478. https://doi.org/10.1016/0076-6879(90)86141-H
[34]
AOAC Association of Official Analytical Chemists (1999) Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Oils, Fats, and Waxes. US FDA, Washington DC.
[35]
Soares, F.A.Z.D., Silva, R.C., Silva, K.C.G., Lourenço, M.B., Soares, D.F. and Gioielli, L.A. (2009) Effects of Chemical Interesterification on Physicochemical Properties of Blends of Palm Stearin and Palm Olein. Food Research International, 42, 1287-1294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2009.03.022
[36]
Costales, R. and Fernández, A. (2009) Hidrogenación e Interesterificación. In: Block, J. and Barrera-Arellano, D., Eds., Temas Selectos en Aceites y Grasas, Edgard Blucher, São Paulo.
[37]
Mozaffarian, D. and Stampfer, M.J. (2010) Removing Industrial Trans Fat from Foods. BMJ (Clinical Research ed.), 340, c1826. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c1826
[38]
Nishikawa, S., Sugimoto, J., Okada, M., Sakairi, T. and Takagi, S. (2012) Gene Expression in Livers of BALB/C and C57BL/6J Mice Fed a High-Fat Diet. Toxicologic Pathology, 40, 71-82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192623311422078
[39]
Gouk, S.W., Cheng, S.F., Mok, J.S., Ong, A.S. and Chuah, C.H. (2013) Long-Chain SFA at the sn-1,3 Positions of TAG Reduce Body Fat Deposition in C57BL/6 Mice. The British Journal of Nutrition, 110, 1987-1995. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114513001475
[40]
Afonso, M.S., Lavrador, M.S., Koike, M.K., Cintra, D.E., Ferreira, F.D., Nunes, V.S., et al. (2016) Dietary Interesterified Fat Enriched with Palmitic Acid Induces Atherosclerosis by Impairing Macrophage Cholesterol Efflux and Eliciting Inflammation. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 32, 91-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2016.01.005
[41]
Lavrador, M., Afonso, M.S., Cintra, D.E., Koike, M., Nunes, V.S., Demasi, M., et al. (2019) Interesterified Fats Induce Deleterious Effects on Adipose Tissue and Liver in LDLr-KO Mice. Nutrients, 11, 466. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11020466
[42]
Magri, T.P., Fernandes, F.S., Souza, A.S., Langhi, L.G., Barboza, T., Misan, V., Mucci, et al. (2015) Interesterified Fat or Palm Oil as Substitutes for Partially Hydrogenated Fat in Maternal Diet Can Predispose Obesity in Adult Male Offspring. Clinical Nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland), 34, 904-910. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2014.09.014
[43]
De Velasco, P., Fernandes, F., Mucci, D., Santos, R., Magri, T., Misan, V. and Tavares do Carmo, M.d.G. (2015) Interesterified Fat or Palm Oil as Substitutes for Trans Fat in Maternal Diet Can Predispose Obesity and Inflammation in Adult Male Offspring. The FASEB Journal, 29, 754.
[44]
Bispo, K.P., de Oliveira Rodrigues, L., da Silva Soares de Souza, é., Mucci, D., Tavares do Carmo, M.d., de Albuquerque, K.T. and de Carvalho Sardinha, F.L. (2015) Trans and Interesterified Fat and Palm Oil during the Pregnancy and Lactation Period Inhibit the Central Anorexigenic Action of Insulin in Adult Male Rat Offspring. The Journal of Physiological Sciences, 65, 131-138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12576-014-0351-6
[45]
Ponnampalam, E.N., Lewandowski, P., Nesaratnam, K., Dunshea, F.R. and Gill, H. (2011) Differential Effects of Natural Palm Oil, Chemically- and Enzymatically-Modified Palm Oil on Weight Gain, Blood Lipid Metabolites and Fat Deposition in a Pediatric Pig Model. Nutrition Journal, 10, 53. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2891-10-53
[46]
Reena, M.B. and Lokesh, B.R. (2007) Hypolipidemic Effect of Oils with Balanced Amounts of Fatty Acids Obtained by Blending and Interesterification of Coconut Oil with Rice Bran Oil or Sesame Oil. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 55, 10461-10469. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0718042
[47]
Nagaraju, A. and Lokesh, B.R. (2007) Interesterified Coconut Oil Blends with Groundnut Oil or Olive Oil Exhibit Greater Hypocholesterolemic Effects Compared with Their Respective Physical Blends in Rats. Nutrition Research, 27, 580-586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2007.06.007
[48]
Reena, M.B., Gowda, L.R. and Lokesh, B.R. (2011) Enhanced Hypocholesterolemic Effects of Interesterified Oils Are Mediated by Upregulating LDL Receptor and Cholesterol 7-α-Hydroxylase Gene Expression in Rats. The Journal of Nutrition, 141, 24-30. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.110.127027
[49]
Blaha, M.J., Blumenthal, R.S., Brinton, E.A., Jacobson, T.A. and National Lipid Association Taskforce on Non-HDL Cholesterol (2008) The Importance of non-HDL Cholesterol Reporting in Lipid Management. Journal of Clinical Lipidology, 2, 267-273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacl.2008.06.013
[50]
Mensink, R.P., Zock, P.L., Kester, A.D. and Katan, M.B. (2003) Effects of Dietary Fatty Acids and Carbohydrates on the Ratio of Serum Total to HDL Cholesterol and on Serum Lipids and Apolipoproteins: A Meta-Analysis of 60 Controlled Trials. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 77, 1146-1155. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/77.5.1146
[51]
Sun, Y., Neelakantan, N., Wu, Y., Lote-Oke, R., Pan, A. and van Dam, R.M. (2015) Palm Oil Consumption Increases LDL Cholesterol Compared with Vegetable Oils Low in Saturated Fat in a Meta-Analysis of Clinical Trials. The Journal of Nutrition, 145, 1549-1558. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.115.210575
[52]
Rodriguez-Leyva, D., Dupasquier, C.M., McCullough, R. and Pierce, G.N. (2010) The Cardiovascular Effects of Flaxseed and Its Omega-3 Fatty Acid, Alpha-Linolenic Acid. The Canadian Journal of Cardiology, 26, 489-496. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0828-282X(10)70455-4
[53]
Filippou, A., Teng, K.-T., Berry, S.E. and Sanders, T.A.B. (2014) Palmitic Acid in the sn-2 Position of Dietary Triacylglycerols Does Not Affect Insulin Secretion or Glucose Homeostasis in Healthy Men and Women. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 68, 1036-1041. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2014.141
[54]
Miyamoto, J.é., Ferraz, A.C.G., Portovedo, M., Reginato, A., Stahl, M.A., Ignacio-Souza, L.M., et al (2018) Interesterified Soybean Oil Promotes Weight Gain, Impaired Glucose Tolerance and Increased Liver Cellular Stress Markers. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 59, 153-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2018.05.014
[55]
Masarone, M., Rosato, V., Dallio, M., Gravina, A.G., Aglitti, A., Loguercio, C., et al (2018) Role of Oxidative Stress in Pathophysiology of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2018, Article ID: 9547613. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/9547613
[56]
Monguchi, T., Hara, T., Hasokawa, M., Nakajima, H., Mori, K., Toh, R., Irino, Y., Ishida, T., Hirata, K.I. and Shinohara, M. (2017) Excessive Intake of Trans Fatty Acid Accelerates Atherosclerosis through Promoting Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in a Mouse Model of Hyperlipidemia. Journal of Cardiology, 70, 121-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jjcc.2016.12.012
[57]
Dhibi, M., Brahmi, F., Mnari, A., Houas, Z., Chargui, I., Bchir, L., Gazzah, N., Alsaif, M.A. and Hammami, M. (2011) The Intake of High Fat Diet with Different Trans Fatty Acid Levels Differentially Induces Oxidative Stress and Non Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) in Rats. Nutrition and Metabolism, 8, 65. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-7075-8-65
[58]
Zhang, Y., Yang, X., Shi, H., Dong, L. and Bai, J. (2011) Effect of α-Linolenic Acid on Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Mediated Apoptosis of Palmitic Acid Lipotoxicity in Primary Rat Hepatocytes. Lipids in Health and Disease, 10, 122. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-511X-10-122
[59]
Guo, W., Wong, S., Xie, W., Lei, T. and Luo, Z. (2007) Palmitate Modulates Intracellular Signaling, Induces Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress, and Causes Apoptosis in Mouse 3T3-L1 and Rat Primary Preadipocytes. American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism, 293, E576-E586. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00523.2006
[60]
Yao, J.K., Leonard, S. and Reddy, R. (2006) Altered Glutathione Redox State in Schizophrenia. Disease Markers, 22, 83-93. https://doi.org/10.1155/2006/248387
[61]
Pettersson, U.S., Waldén, T.B., Carlsson, P.O., Jansson, L. and Phillipson, M. (2012) Female Mice Are Protected against High-Fat Diet Induced Metabolic Syndrome and Increase the Regulatory T Cell Population in Adipose Tissue. PLoS One, 7, e46057. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0046057
