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Apr 29, 2025Open Access
This study investigates the optimization of Fresnel lens designs using Zemax software, with a focus on minimizing beam divergence by controlling the output spot diameter on the image plane. Global and hammering optimization methods were employed to simulate radial and cylindrical Fresnel lenses with distinct groove geometries. The results reveal the presence of spherical and distortion aberrations, which were effectively mitigated through optimization techniques. Simulations were conducted in bo...
Mar 26, 2025Open Access
In this article, we continue the development of the Symmetric Theory. What we will show is the coupling between the universe and the medium Planck, understood as the medium that formalises the characteristics of the zero-point field. We will show how the phenomena of the infinitely large of the universe and the infinitely small of the atom harmonize in relation to the medium Planck. We will show how Hawking radiation, Unhru effect, Casimir effect, Entropic force, Stefan-Boltzmann’s cons...
Oct 23, 2024Open Access
In this paper, we report the study of I-V characteristics for some metal work functions. The Schottky barrier structure is controlled by the metal work function using the MATLAB programming language. The study of the effect of metal work function proved its influence on device performance, and a significant dependence was observed between this parameter and the electrical parameters at room temperature. The temperature effect on the electrical characteristics of n-AlGaAs Schottky diodes has been...
May 07, 2024Open Access
What is the universe made of? The universe is made of atoms (and vacuum). The basic atom is the Hydrogen atom with one proton in its nucleus and one electron orbiting the electron cloud. This basic Hydrogen atom is called Protium. Protium atoms were created at the Big Bang explosion. Protons, neutrons, and electrons are assumed in this paper to be made of quarks. Three types of quarks are considered: up quark, strange quark, and down quark. Protons are assumed to be made of one up quark and one ...
Sep 07, 2023Open Access
This work presents novel hydrodynamic formulations that reconcile the continuum hypothesis with the emergence of electromagnetic interactions among molecules from fundamental principles. Two models are proposed: a relativistic version of the Navier-Stokes equations derived from commutation relations, and a Helmholtz-like system obtained by applying the Hodge operator to the extended Navier-Stokes equations. Preliminary analysis suggests that the second model, with its nonlinear terms serving as ...
Aug 23, 2023Open Access
Here we continue the discussion of the nature of elementary particles based on the theory of electrodynamics (generalized Maxwell equations [1]). As is noted in [1], such a theory should exist because photons partake in a variety of reactions in which they turn elementary particles into particles of other forms while having the property of being a quantum of an electromagnetic field. Unlike the widely accepted theory of point particles, we propose that particles are not “elementary” particles (...
Apr 13, 2023Open Access
The observed angular distribution data of deuteron elastic and inelastic scattering from 58Ni at 170 MeV, 70,72Ge, 90Zr, 116Sn at 171 MeV and 208Pb at 86 MeV are analyzed within the optical model framework. The real and imaginary parts of the optical potentials were calculated using the double folding procedure with a B3Y-Fetal effective interaction. The obtained potentials are fitted with appropriate Woods-Saxon form factors and introduced ...
Mar 31, 2023Open Access
This paper deals with the model of the evolution of the Universe proposed by Lemaitre: when the universe expands, the concentration of particles—galaxies declines, and when the universe contracts, the concentration of particles—galaxies increases. The solutions of the corresponding differential equations represent integrals from soliton functions satisfying the Euler-Lagrange equation. This means that the evolution of the universe, which occurs both with its expansion and contraction, is an opti...
Mar 01, 2023Open Access
It has to be noted that Albert Einstein used the extremal property of geodesic line when developing the general theory of relativity (GTR). In the following years, after the development of the GTR, it became known that the expression for a geodesic line can be replaced by the Euler-Lagrange equation. In the present work, the extremal property of the separatrix of a mathematical pendulum is used to develop a new approach to the general theory of relativity. The pendulum separatrix satisfies the E...
Dec 08, 2022Open Access
In order to create a model for the formation of dark matter in the universe, the displacement equation is used for changing the state of an elastic medium in a linear approximation. A localized microparticle located in the pre-galactic space is characterized by a point inclusion defect, i.e. center of dilation. Dilation is modeled by using divergence. Attention is drawn to the relation, according to which the value of the Burgers vector is defined as the circulation of the displacement different...
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