A growing concern among the global population is the presence of Micro-plastics (MPs) and Nanoplastics (NPs) within various environmental compartments due to their pervasive, persistent presence. Through atmospheric, aquatic, terrestrial, and biological pathways, these particles enter and traverse ecosystems as a result of fragmentation of larger plastics and primary sources such as industrial abrasives and cosmetics. Since they are widely distributed, their presence in soil, freshwater, marine environments, air, human tissues and food chains has been documented. To understand MPs and NPs’ prevalence, behavior, and impacts, this review synthesizes findings from key case studies analyzing environmental and biological samples. It has been shown that both human and animal health can be negatively impacted, including inflammation and oxidative stress, reproductive toxicity, and developmental toxicity. Further, we discuss contaminants’ transport, accumulation, and interactions in food and water systems. There is a special emphasis on ecological consequences, such as bioaccumulation and trophic transfer, which intensify risks across ecosystems in the long run. Additionally, this paper summarizes global and national regulatory frameworks and provides science-based mitigation recommendations, including source reduction strategies, circular economy strategies, and improved analytical methods. Microplastics and nanoplastics pose significant health and environmental risks due to rapid technological advancements and increasing scientific insight. This review stresses the need for harmonized regulations and robust monitoring in addition to interdisciplinary research to address these issues.
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