全部 标题 作者
关键词 摘要

OALib Journal期刊
ISSN: 2333-9721
费用:99美元

查看量下载量

Hydrogeochemical and Biological Evaluation of Packaged Groundwater Sold in Douala City, Cameroon

DOI: 10.4236/oalib.1108227, PP. 1-19

Subject Areas: Geology, Hydrology, Environmental Sciences

Keywords: Packaged-Groundwater, Chemical-Quality, Biological-Quality, Cameroon

Full-Text   Cite this paper   Add to My Lib

Abstract

Douala is the economic capital of Cameroon situated between latitude 4.00 - 4.15 and longitude 9.65 - 9.95 with an estimated population of over two million and 65,000 households connected to the water supply network. The Douala/Kribi-Campo Basin is a divergent, marginal rift basin and one of the two Atlantic coastal basins of Cameroon, the other being the Rio del Rey Basin. This study evaluates the quality of packaged (Bottled/Sachet/Refilled) groundwater in Douala using hydrogeochemical tools: Gibbs diagrams, Piper diagrams, Durov diagrams, water quality indices and microbial (Coliform Count) analysis. Twenty packaged groundwater samples were sent for chemical and microbial analysis during two seasons. In-situ field measured physicochemical parameters ranged from, pH (5.70 - 8.40), Temperature (11.5°C - 29.2°C); EC (10 - 364 μS/cm) and TDS (6.7 - 243.88 mg/L). The total hardness ranged from 10.07 - 147.15 (mg of CaCO3) soft. Gibb’s diagram indicates the mechanism controlling water chemistry is rock-weathering and atmospheric precipitation. From Durov and Piper diagrams simple dissolution during recharge or mixing is the primary hydrogeochemical process in the evolution of the groundwater chemistry. The groundwater types are CaHCO3 > MgHCO3 with three hydrogeochemical facies in the order [Ca2 -Mg2 - Cl--SO2-4] > [Ca2 -Mg2 -HCO-3] > [Na -K -HCO-3]. The WQI is from 6.49 - 38.71 indicating all packaged groundwater in Douala is chemically suitable for consumption. The physicochemical parameters (pH, electrical conductivities, temperature and total dissolved solids) of packaged groundwater are below WHO guideline acceptable limits. From Microbial analysis (Cheesbrough classification), some packaged groundwater were unacceptable (with coliform) in both seasons. The poor quality of the packaged groundwater is considered dangerously unhygienic and thus of great concern. The poor quality of the packaged groundwater is probably due to errors in the processing and packaging of the water. Packaged groundwater actors must have higher quality monitoring control.

Cite this paper

Agbor, M. N. , Ntube, N. S. , Nyangang, A. J. and II, A. R. A. (2021). Hydrogeochemical and Biological Evaluation of Packaged Groundwater Sold in Douala City, Cameroon. Open Access Library Journal, 8, e8227. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1108227.

References

[1]  Eneke, G.T., Ayonghe, S.N., Chandrasekharam, D., Ntchancho, R., Ako, A.A., Mouncherou, O. and Thambidurai, P. (2011) Controls on Groundwater Chemistry in a Highly Urbanized Coastal Area. International Journal of Environmental Research, 5, 475-490.
[2]  Warburton, D.W. (2000) The Microbiological Safety of Bottled Waters. In: Farber, J.M. and Ewen, E.D., Eds., Safe Handling of Foods, Marcel Dekker, New York.
[3]  Doria, M.D.F., Pidgeon, N. and Hunter, P.R. (2009) Perceptions of Drinking Water Quality and Risk and Its Effect on Behaviour: A Cross-National Study. Science of the Total Environment, 407, 5455-5464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.06.031
[4]  Ward, L.A., Cain, O.L. and Mullally, R.A. (2009) Health Beliefs about Bottled Water: A Qualitative Study. BMC Public Health, 9, Article No. 196. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-9-196
[5]  Venieri, D., Vantarakis, A., Komninou, G. and Papapetropoulou, M. (2006) Microbiological Evaluation of Bottled Non-Carbonated (“Still”) Water from Domestic Brands in Greece. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 107, 68-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2005.08.013
[6]  Fisher, M.B., Williams, A.R. and Jalloh, M.F. (2015) Microbiological and Chemical Quality of Packaged Sachet Water and Household Stored Drinking Water in Freetown, Sierra Leone. PLoS ONE, 10, e0131772. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0131772
[7]  Cheesbrough, M. (1984) Medical Laboratory Manual for Tropical Countries, Vol. II. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
[8]  Virkutyte, J. and Sillanpa, M. (2006) Chemical Evaluation of Potable Water in Eastern Qinghai Province, China: Human Health Aspects. Environment International, 32, 80-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2005.05.022
[9]  WHO (1972-73) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, Int. Health Criteria and Other Supporting Information. World Health Organization, Geneva, Vol. 3, 101-146.
[10]  Akiyo, O.L.R. (2017) Consommation de l’eau en sachet et ses effets socio-environnementaux dans la commune de Parakou. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 11, 17-28. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v11i4.25
[11]  WHO (2014) Weekly Epidemiological Record, 89th Year. WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication.
[12]  Stoler, J., Tutu, R.A., Ahmed, H., Frimpong, L.A. and Bello, M. (2014) Sachet Water Quality and Brand Reputation in Two Low-Income Urban Communities in Greater Accra, Ghana. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 90, 272-278. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.13-0461
[13]  WHO (2000) Fact Sheet No. 256—Bottled Drinking Water.
[14]  Addo, K.K., Mensah, G., Donkor, B., Bonsu, C. and Akyeh, M. (2009) Bacteriological Quality of Bottled Water Sold on the Ghanaian Market. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 9, 1378. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajfand.v9i6.46259
[15]  Touridomon, S., Banao, I., Gouado, I. and Tapsoba, T. (2009) Composition physico-chimique des eaux de boisson conditionnées commercialisées à Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Cahiers Santé, 1, 1-10.
[16]  Hunter, P.R. and Burge, S.H. (1987) The Bacteriological Quality of Natural Mineral Waters. Epidemiology and Infection, 99, 439-443. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268800067935
[17]  Akoachere, J.F. and Muntcha (2014) Water Sources as Reservoirs of Vibrio choleraO1 Strain and Non-O1 Strain in Bepanda, Douala (Cameroon): Relationship between Isolation and Physico-Chemical Factors. BMC Infectious Diseases, 14, Article No. 421. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-14-421
[18]  Ntamak-Nida, M.J., Bourquin, S., Makong, J.C., Boudin, F., Mpesse, J.E., Ngouem, C.I., Konguem, P.B. and Abolo, G.M. (2010) Sedimentary and Sequence Stratigraphy from Outcrops of the Kribi-Campo Sub-Basin: Lower Mundeck Formation (Lower Cretaceous, Southern Cameroon). Journal of African Earth Sciences, 58, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2010.01.004
[19]  SNH (Societe National des hydrocarbure) Report (1999) The Douala/Kribi Campo Basin. Republic of Cameroon, Third Licensing Round, 4-8.
[20]  Mural, R.C. (1972) Stratigraphy and Paleogeography of the Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary in Southern Nigeria. In: Dessauvagie, T.F.J. and Whiteman, A.J., Eds., African Geology, University of Ibadan Press, Ibadan, 251-266.
[21]  Petters, S.W. (1980) Biostratigraphy of Upper Cretaceous Foraminifera of the Benue Trough, Nigeria. Journal of Foraminiferal Research, 10, 191-204. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsjfr.10.3.191
[22]  Reyment, R.A. (1955) The Cretaceous Ammonites of Southern Nigeria and Southern Cameroon. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Nigeria, 25, 1-112.
[23]  Nodesa, C. (1971) Lexicon of West Africa Stratigraphic Names (from Togo to Angola). HTCS Report 443N0010.
[24]  Abbot, B.M., Walker, J.W. and Prissorsky, J.A. (1978) An Evaluation of the Douala Permit, Cameroon, as an Aid to the 1978 Relinquishment; HTSC Report No. 442A1822, 25 p.
[25]  Belinga, E.S.M. (1984) Geology of Cameroon. University of Yaounde, Yaounde.
[26]  Njike, N.P.R. (1984) Contributioon a l’etude geologique stratigraphic et structural de la bordure. Thesis Department of Geology, University of Yaounde, Yaounde, 61.
[27]  Nguene, F.R., Tanfu, S., Loule, J.P. and Nhassa, C. (1992) Paleoenvironment of the Douala/Kribi Campo Sub-Basins in Cameroon, West Africa. African Geology; University Geology.
[28]  Njoh, O.A., Essien, J.A. and Tembi, A. (2014) Albian-Turonian Palynomorphs from the Mundeck and Logbajeck Formations, Ediki River, North-Western Part of the Douala Sub-, Cameroon. Science, Technology and Development, 15, 66-77.
[29]  Akoachere II, R.A., Hosono, T., Eyong, T.A., Ngassam, M.C.P., Nkongho, R.N., Okpara, S.O. and Oben, T.T. (2019) Evaluation of Trace Metals in Groundwater of Ekondo-Titi and Environs, Onshore Rio Del Rey, Cameroun. Open Access Library Journal, 6, e5791. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1105791
[30]  Akoachere, R.A., Egbe, S.E., Eyong, T.A., Edimo, S.N., Longonje, S.N., Tambe, D.B. and Nelly, N.B. (2019) Seasonal Variations in Groundwater of the Phreatic Aquiferous Formations in Douala City-Cameroon: Hydrogeochemistry and Water Quality. Open Access Library Journal, 6, e5328.
[31]  Poonam, T., Tanushree, B. and Sukalyan, C. (2013) Water Quality Indices-Important Tools for Water Quality Assessment; A Review. International Journal of Advances in Chemistry, 1, 15-28.
[32]  Gibbs, R.J. (1970) Mechanisms Controlling World Water Chemistry. Science, 170, 1088-1090. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.170.3962.1088
[33]  Piper, A.M. (1944) A Geographic Procedure in the Geochemical Interpretation of Water Analysis. Transactions American Geophysical Union, 25, 914-923. https://doi.org/10.1029/TR025i006p00914
[34]  Langguth, H.R. (1966) Groundwater verhaltisse in Bereiech Des Velberter. Sattles. Der Minister Fur Eraehrung, Land Wirtsch Forste. NRW, Duesseldorf.
[35]  Durov, S.A. (1948) Classification of Natural Waters and Graphical Representation of Their Composition. Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, 59, 87-90.
[36]  Lyoyd, J.A. and Heathcaot, J.A. (1985) Natural Inorganic Hydrochemistry in Relation to Groundwater; an Introduction. Oxford University Press, New York.
[37]  Cheesbrough, M. (2002) District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries Part 2. Butterworth, Cambridge.
[38]  Bonde, G. (1977) Bacterial Indication of Water Pollution in Advances in Aquatic Microbiology. Academic Press, London. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-003001-9.50010-X
[39]  Akpan, A.E., Ugbaja, A.N. and George, N.J. (2013) Integrated Geophysical, Geochemical and Hydrogeological Investigation of Shallow Groundwater Resources in Parts of the Ikom-Mamfe Embayment and the Adjoining Areas in Cross River State, Nigeria. Environmental Earth Sciences, 70, 1435-1456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2232-3
[40]  Akoachere, R.A., Eyong, T.A., Eduvie, M.O., Egbe, S.E., Yaya, O.O. and Nwude, M.O. (2018) Hydrogeochemical Model and Water Quality of Groundwater in the Granito-Basaltic Fractured Rock Aquiferous Formations in Bafoussam, West Region-Cameroon. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 10, 1148-1174. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2018.1011068

Full-Text


comments powered by Disqus

Contact Us

service@oalib.com

QQ:3279437679

WhatsApp +8615387084133

WeChat 1538708413