Recently, huge awareness has been accorded to potential circulation of SARS- CoV-2 through water systems. This work deals with this problem and researches the behavior of coronaviruses (CoVs) in water media, with specific interest on the new data on the fresh SARS-CoV-2. The examination of the natural persistence of CoVs and the performance of the disinfection technologies are also discussed. All CoVs have a restricted stability in water media: 2 - 5 days in tap water and 2 - 6 days in wastewater were judged enough for 2-log reduction of SARS-CoV-2 titer. SARS-CoV-2 is distinguished by a weak construction and is vulnerable to traditional disinfection technologies that have been demonstrated to be very efficient in their neutralization. Approximately 5 min of exposure to sodium hypochlorite (1%), ethanol (70%), iodine (7.5%), soap solution and additional usual disinfectants was enough for reaching 7 - 8-log of SARS-CoV-2 titer decrease. Thermal treatment is efficacious in SARS-CoV-2 demobilization: 30 min at 56 or 5 min at 70°C were enough for attaining the total depletion of the infectivity. Further, SARS-CoV-2 remains vulnerable to sunlight and quickly demobilized by UV radiation. UV-C at 254 nm and intensity of 2.2 mW/cm2 yields 3-log of SARS-CoV-2 titer decrease in less than 3 s of application. Consequently for SARS-CoV-2 disinfection, usual injections of killing agents remain required for sanitation and for wastewater treatment. Relating to controlling CoVs diffusion and applying disinfection technologies, vigilance remains essential.
Cite this paper
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2021). Exploring What Lies Ahead in the Field of Disinfecting Coronavirus. Open Access Library Journal, 8, e7487. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1107487.
Buonerba, A., Vermi Aizza Corpuz, M., Ballesteros, F., Choo, K.-H., Hasan, S.W., Korshin, G.V., Belgiorno, V., Barceló, D. and Naddeo, V. (2021) Coronavirus in Water Media: Analysis, Fate, Disinfection and Epidemiological Applications. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 415, Article ID: 125580.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125580
Holshue, M.L., DeBolt, C., Lindquist, S., Lofy, K.H., Wiesman, J., Bruce, H., Spitters, C., Ericson, K., Wilkerson, S., Tural, A., Diaz, G., Cohn, A., Fox, L., Patel, A., Gerber, S.I., Kim, L., Tong, S., Lu, X., Lindstrom, S., Pallansch, M.A., Weldon, W.C., Biggs, H.M., Uyeki, T.M. and Pillai, S.K. (2020) First Case of 2019 Novel Coronavirus in the United States. The New England Journal of Medicine, 382, 929-936.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001191
Corpuz, M.V.A., Buonerba, A., Vigliotta, G., Zarra, T., Ballesteros, F., Campiglia, P., Belgiorno, V., Korshin, G. and Naddeo, V. (2020) Viruses in Wastewater: Occurrence, Abundance and Detection Methods. Science of the Total Environment, 745, Article ID: 140910. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140910
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N. and Al Arni, S. (2020) New Insights towards Disinfecting Viruses—Short Notes. Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination, 10, 173- 186. https://doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2020.050
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2021) Modeling Viruses’ Isoelectric Points as a Milestone in Intensifying the Electrocoagulation Process for Their Elimination. Open Access Library Journal, 8, e7166. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1107166
Cui, J., Li, F. and Shi, Z.-L. (2019) Origin and Evolution of Pathogenic Coronaviruses. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 17, 181-192.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-018-0118-9
Ghernaout, D. (2019) Virus Removal by Electrocoagulation and Electrooxidation: New Findings and Future Trends. Journal of Environmental Science and Allied Research, 2019, 85-90.
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Disinfecting Water: Plasma Discharge for Removing Coronaviruses. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6314.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106314
Asadi, S., Bouvier, N., Wexler, A.S. and Ristenpart, W.D. (2020) The Coronavirus Pandemic and Aerosols: Does COVID-19 Transmit via Expiratory Particles? Aerosol Science and Technology, 54, 635-638.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02786826.2020.1749229
Bourouiba, L. (2020) Turbulent Gas Clouds and Respiratory Pathogen Emissions: Potential Implications for Reducing Transmission of COVID-19. JAMA, 323, 1837- 1838. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.4756
Van Doremalen, N., Bushmaker, T., Morris, D.H., Holbrook, M.G., Gamble, A., Williamson, B.N., Tamin, A., Harcourt, J.L., Thornburg, N.J., Gerber, S.I., Lloyd- Smith, J.O., de Wit, E. and Munster, V.J. (2020) Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1. The New England Journal of Medicine, 382, 1564-1567. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2004973
Lu, C.-W., Liu, X.-F. and Jia, Z.-F. (2020) 2019-nCoV Transmission through the Ocular Surface Must Not Be Ignored. The Lancet, 395, e39.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30313-5
Gwenzi, W. (2020) Leaving No Stone Unturned in Light of the COVID-19 Faecal-Oral Hypothesis? A Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Perspective Targeting Low-Income Countries. Science of the Total Environment, 753, Article ID: 141751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141751
Ye, Y., Ellenberg, R.M., Graham, K.E. and Wigginton, K.R. (2016) Survivability, Partitioning, and Recovery of Enveloped Viruses in Untreated Municipal Wastewater. Environmental Science & Technology, 50, 5077-5085.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b00876
Hung, L.S. (2003) The SARS Epidemic in Hong Kong: What Lessons Have We Learned? Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 96, 374-378.
https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.96.8.374
Matsui, S. (2005) Protecting Human and Ecological Health under Viral Threats in Asia. Water Science and Technology, 51, 91-97.
https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2005.0234
Yeo, C., Kaushal, S. and Yeo, D. (2020) Enteric Involvement of Coronaviruses: Is Faecal-Oral Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 Possible? The Lancet Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 5, 335-337. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-1253(20)30048-0
Xiao, F., Sun, J., Xu, Y., Li, F., Huang, X., Li, H., Zhao, J., Huang, J. and Zhao, J. (2020) Infectious SARS-CoV-2 in Feces of Patient with Severe COVID-19. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 26, 1920-1922. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2608.200681
Bivins, A., Greaves, J., Fischer, R., Yinda, K.C., Ahmed, W., Kitajima, M., Munster, V.J. and Bibby, K. (2020) Persistence of SARS-CoV-2 in Water and Wastewater. Environmental Science & Technology Letters, 7, 937-942.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00730
Ghernaout, D. (2018) Increasing Trends towards Drinking Water Reclamation from Treated Wastewater. World Journal of Applied Chemistry, 3, 1-9.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjac.20180301.11
Ghernaout, D., Alshammari, Y. and Alghamdi, A. (2018) Improving Energetically Operational Procedures in Wastewater Treatment Plants. International Journal of Advanced and Applied Sciences, 5, 64-72. https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2018.09.010
Al Arni, S., Amous, J. and Ghernaout, D. (2019) On the Perspective of Applying of a New Method for Wastewater Treatment Technology: Modification of the Third Traditional Stage with Two Units, One by Cultivating Microalgae and Another by Solar Vaporization. International Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources, 16, Article ID: 555934. https://doi.org/10.19080/IJESNR.2019.16.555934
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Urgent Proposals for Disinfecting Hospital Wastewaters during COVID-19 Pandemic. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6373. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106373
Ghernaout, D. and Ghernaout, B. (2020) Controlling COVID-19 Pandemic through Wastewater Monitoring. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6411.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106411
Arslan, M., Xu, B. and Gamal El-Din, M. (2020) Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 via Fecal-Oral and Aerosols-Borne Routes: Environmental Dynamics and Implications for Wastewater Management in Underprivileged Societies. Science of the Total Environment, 743, Article ID: 140709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140709
El Baz, S. and Imziln, B. (2020) Can Aerosols and Wastewater Be Considered as Potential Transmissional Sources of COVID-19 to Humans? European Journal of Environment and Public Health, 4, em0047. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejeph/8324
Schuit, M., Ratnesar-Shumate, S., Yolitz, J., Williams, G., Weaver, W., Green, B., Miller, D., Krause, M., Beck, K., Wood, S., Holland, B., Bohannon, J., Freeburger, D., Hooper, I., Biryukov, J., Altamura, L.A., Wahl, V., Hevey, M. and Dabisch, P. (2020) Airborne SARS-CoV-2 Is Rapidly Inactivated by Simulated Sunlight. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 222, 564-571. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiaa334
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N., Ghareba, S. and Salih, A. (2020) Coagulation Process for Removing Algae and Algal Organic Matter—An Overview. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6272. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106272
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Eliminating Cyanobacteria and Controlling Algal Organic Matter—Short Notes. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6252.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106252
Ghernaout, D., Ghernaout, B. and Kellil, A. (2009) Natural Organic Matter Removal and Enhanced Coagulation as a Link between Coagulation and Electrocoagulation. Desalination and Water Treatment, 2, 203-222.
https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2009.116
Wigginton, K.R., Ye, Y. and Ellenberg, R.M. (2015) Emerging Investigators Series: the Source and Fate of Pandemic Viruses in the Urban Water Cycle. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, 1, 735-746.
https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EW00125K
Bhardwaj, R. and Agrawal, A. (2020) Tailoring Surface Wettability to Reduce Chances of Infection of COVID-19 by a Respiratory Droplet and to Improve the Effectiveness of Personal Protection Equipment. Physics of Fluids, 32, Article ID: 081702. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0020249
Ghernaout, D. (2017) Environmental Principles in the Holy Koran and the Sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 6, 75- 79. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20170603.13
Ghernaout, D., Ghernaout, B. and Naceur, M.W. (2011) Embodying the Chemical Water Treatment in the Green Chemistry—A Review. Desalination, 271, 1-10.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.01.032
Ghernaout, D. (2018) Electrocoagulation Process: Achievements and Green Perspectives. Colloid and Surface Science, 3, 1-5.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.css.20180301.11
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2019) Upgrading Wastewater Treatment Plant to Obtain Drinking Water. Open Access Library Journal, 6, e5959.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1105959
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N. and Ghareba, S. (2020) Fenton Technology for Wastewater Treatment: Dares and Trends. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6045.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106045
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Advanced Oxidation Processes for Wastewater Treatment: Facts and Future Trends. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6139.
Mirskaya, E. and Agranovski, I.E. (2018) Sources and Mechanisms of Bioaerosol Generation in Occupational Environments. Critical Reviews in Microbiology, 44, 739-758. https://doi.org/10.1080/1040841X.2018.1508125
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Domestic Wastewater Treatment: Difficulties and Reasons, and Prospective Solutions—China as an Example. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6141.
Masclaux, F.G., Hotz, P., Gashi, D., Savova-Bianchi, D. and Oppliger, A. (2014) Assessment of Airborne Virus Contamination in Wastewater Treatment Plants. Environmental Research, 133, 260-265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2014.06.002
Ghernaout, D., Moulay, S., Ait Messaoudene, N., Aichouni, M., Naceur, M.W. and Boucherit, A. (2014) Coagulation and Chlorination of NOM and Algae in Water Treatment: A Review. International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, 2, 23-34. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijema.s.2014020601.14
Ghernaout, D., Alghamdi, A., Aichouni, M. and Touahmia, M. (2018) The Lethal Water Tri-Therapy: Chlorine, Alum, and Polyelectrolyte. World Journal of Applied Chemistry, 3, 65-71. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjac.20180302.14
Ghernaout, D., Naceur, M.W. and Aouabed, A. (2011) On the Dependence of Chlorine By-Products Generated Species Formation of the Electrode Material and Applied Charge during Electrochemical Water Treatment. Desalination, 270, 9-22.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.01.010
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Solar Treatment in the Core of the New Disinfection Technologies. Chemical Science and Engineering Research, 2, 6-11.
https://doi.org/10.36686/Ariviyal.CSER.2020.02.04.014
Rabenau, H.F., Cinatl, J., Morgenstern, B., Bauer, G., Preiser, W. and Doerr, H.W. (2005) Stability and Inactivation of SARS Coronavirus. Medical Microbiology and Immunology, 194, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00430-004-0219-0
Sizun, J., Yu, M.W.N. and Talbot, P.J. (2000) Survival of Human Coronaviruses 229E and OC43 in Suspension and after Drying on Surfaces: A Possible Source of Hospital-Acquired Infections. Journal of Hospital Infection, 46, 55-60.
https://doi.org/10.1053/jhin.2000.0795
Tian, Y., Rong, L., Nian, W. and He, Y. (2020) Review Article: Gastrointestinal Features in COVID-19 and the Possibility of Faecal Transmission. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 51, 843-851. https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.15731
La Rosa, G., Mancini, P., Bonanno Ferraro, G., Veneri, C., Laconelli, M., Bonadonna, L., Lucentini, L. and Suffredini, E. (2021) SARS-CoV-2 Has Been Circulating in Northern Italy since December 2019: Evidence from Environmental Monitoring. Science of the Total Environment, 750, Article ID: 141711.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141711
Medema, G., Heijnen, L., Elsinga, G., Italiaander, R. and Brouwer, A. (2020) Presence of SARS-Coronavirus-2 RNA in Sewage and Correlation with Reported COVID-19 Prevalence in the Early Stage of the Epidemic in the Netherlands. Environmental Science & Technology Letters, 7, 511-516.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00357
Ghernaout, D. (2014) The Hydrophilic/Hydrophobic Ratio vs. Dissolved Organics Removal by Coagulation—A Review. Journal of King Saud University—Science, 26, 169-180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2013.09.005
Ghernaout, D. (2019) Greening Cold Fusion as an Energy Source for Water Treatment Distillation—A Perspective. American Journal of Quantum Chemistry and Molecular Spectroscopy, 3, 1-5.
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) UV-C/H2O2 and Sunlight/H2O2 in the Core of the Best Available Technologies for Dealing with Present Dares in Domestic Wastewater Reuse. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6161.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106161
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Vacuum-UV Radiation at 185 nm for Disinfecting Water. Chemical Science and Engineering Research, 2, 12-17.
https://doi.org/10.36686/Ariviyal.CSER.2020.02.04.015
Ghernaout, D. and Ghernaout, B. (2010) From Chemical Disinfection to Electrodisinfection: The Obligatory Itinerary? Desalination, and Water Treatment, 16, 156- 175. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1085
Ghernaout, D. (2018) Disinfection and DBPs Removal in Drinking Water Treatment: A Perspective for a Green Technology. International Journal of Advanced and Applied Sciences, 5, 108-117. https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2018.02.018
Ghernaout, D., Alghamdi, A. and Ghernaout, B. (2019) Microorganisms’ Killing: Chemical Disinfection vs. Electrodisinfection. Applied Engineering, 3, 13-19.
Ghernaout, D. and Ghernaout, B. (2012) On the Concept of the Future Drinking Water Treatment Plant: Algae Harvesting from the Algal Biomass for Biodiesel Production—A Review. Desalination, and Water Treatment, 49, 1-18.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2012.708191
Ghernaout, D., Badis, A., Braikia, G., Mataam, N., Fekhar, M., Ghernaout, B. and Boucherit, A. (2017) Enhanced Coagulation for Algae Removal in a Typical Algeria Water Treatment Plant. Environmental Engineering and Management Journal, 16, 2303-2315. https://doi.org/10.30638/eemj.2017.238
Alshammari, Y., Ghernaout, D., Aichouni, M. and Touahmia, M. (2018) Improving Operational Procedures in Riyadh’s (Saudi Arabia) Water Treatment Plants Using Quality Tools. Applied Engineering, 2, 60-71.
Khan, M.I., Shanableh, A., Elboughdiri, N., Kriaa, K., Ghernaout, D., Ghareba, S., Khraisheh, M. and Lashari, M.H. (2021) Higher acid Recovery Efficiency of Novel Functionalized Inorganic/Organic Composite Anion Exchange Membranes from Acidic Wastewater. Membranes, 11, 133.
https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11020133
Irki, S., Kasbadji-Merzouk, N., Hanini, S. and Ghernaout, D. (2020) Modelling of the Coupling of Desalination Plants with the Thermal Solar Energy System. Water Supply, 20, 1807-1822. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2020.092
Darnell, M.E.R. and Taylor, D.R. (2006) Evaluation of Inactivation Methods for Severe acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus in Noncellular Blood Products. Transfusion, 46, 1770-1777.
https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2020.092https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2020.092
Pratelli, A. (2008) Canine Coronavirus Inactivation with Physical and Chemical Agents. The Veterinary Journal, 177, 71-79.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2007.03.019
Auler, A.C., Cássaro, F.A.M., da Silva, V.O. and Pires, L.F. (2020) Evidence That High Temperatures and Intermediate Relative Humidity Might Favor the Spread of COVID-19 in Tropical Climate: A Case Study for the Most Affected Brazilian Cities. Science of the Total Environment, 729, Article ID: 139090.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139090
Tobías A. and Molina, T. (2020) Is Temperature Reducing the Transmission of COVID-19? Environmental Research, 186, Article ID: 109553.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109553
Ghernaout, D. (2013) The Best Available Technology of Water/Wastewater Treatment and Seawater Desalination: Simulation of the Open Sky Seawater Distillation. Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 3, 68-88. https://doi.org/10.4236/gsc.2013.32012
Ghernaout, D. (2020) Demobilizing Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Antibiotic Resistance Genes by Electrochemical Technology: New Insights. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6685. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106685
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Removing Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria (ARB) Carrying Genes (ARGs): Challenges and Future Trends. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6003. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106003
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Should We Forbid the Consumption of Antibiotics to Stop the Spread of Resistances in Nature? Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6138.
Qiu, Y., Li, Q., Lee, B.E., Ruecker, N.J., Neumann, N.F., Ashbolt, N.J. and Pang, X. (2018) UV Inactivation of Human Infectious Viruses at Two Full-Scale Wastewater Treatment Plants in Canada. Water Research, 147, 73-81.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.09.057
Kariwa, H., Fujii, N. and Takashima, I. (2006) Inactivation of SARS Coronavirus by Means of Povidone-Iodine, Physical Conditions and Chemical Reagents. Dermatology, 212, S119-S123. https://doi.org/10.1159/000089211
Ratnesar-Shumate, S., Williams, G., Green, B., Krause, M., Holland, B., Wood, S., Bohannon, J., Boydston, J., Freeburger, D., Hooper, I., Beck, K., Yeager, J., Altamura, L.A., Biryukov, J., Yolitz, J., Schuit, M., Wahl, V., Hevey, M. and Dabisch, P. (2020) Simulated Sunlight Rapidly Inactivates SARS-CoV-2 on Surfaces. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 222, 214-222. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiaa274
Tang, L., Liu, M., Ren, B., Wu, Z., Yu, X., Peng, C. and Tian, J. (2021) Sunlight Ultraviolet Radiation Dose Is Negatively Correlated with the Percent Positive of SARS- CoV-2 and Four Other Common Human Coronaviruses in the U.S. Science of the Total Environment, 751, Article ID: 141816.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141816
Heilingloh, C.S., Aufderhorst, U.W., Schipper, L., Dittmer, U., Witzke, O., Yang, D., Zheng, X., Sutter, K., Trilling, M., Alt, M., Steinmann, E. and Krawczyk, A. (2020) Susceptibility of SARS-CoV-2 to UV Irradiation. American Journal of Infection Control, 48, 1273-1275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2020.07.031
Eggers, M., Eickmann, M. and Zorn, J. (2015) Rapid and Effective Virucidal Activity of Povidone-Iodine Products against Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara (MVA). Infectious Diseases and Therapy, 4, 491-501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40121-015-0091-9
Lamarre, A. and Talbot, P.J. (1989) Effect of pH and Temperature on the Infectivity of Human Coronavirus 229E. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 35, 972-974.
https://doi.org/10.1139/m89-160
Sturman, L.S., Ricard, C.S. and Holmes, K.V. (1990) Conformational Change of the Coronavirus Peplomer Glycoprotein at pH 8.0 and 37 Degrees C Correlates with Virus Aggregation and Virus-Induced Cell Fusion. Journal of Virology, 64, 3042- 3050. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.64.6.3042-3050.1990
Pocock, D.H. and Garwes, D.J. (1975) The Influence of pH on the Growth and Stability of Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus in Vitro. Archives of Virology, 49, 239- 247. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01317542
Geller, C., Varbanov, M. and Duval, R.E. (2012) Human Coronaviruses: Insights into Environmental Resistance and Its Influence on the Development of New Antiseptic Strategies. Viruses, 4, 3044-3068. https://doi.org/10.3390/v4113044
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N., Ghareba, S. and Salih, A. (2020) Disinfecting Water with the Carbon Fiber-Based Flow-Through Electrode System (FES): Towards Axial Dispersion and Velocity Profile. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6238.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106238
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N., Ghareba, S. and Salih, A. (2020) Electrochemical Advanced Oxidation Processes (EAOPs) for Disinfecting Water—Fresh Perspectives. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6257. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106257
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Controlling Disinfection By-Products Formation in Rainwater: Technologies and Trends. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6162.
Boucherit, A., Moulay, S., Ghernaout, D., Al-Ghonamy, A.I., Ghernaout, B., Naceur, M.W., Ait Messaoudene, N., Aichouni, M., Mahjoubi, A.A. and Elboughdiri, N.A. (2015) New Trends in Disinfection By-Products Formation upon Water Treatment. Journal of Research & Developments in Chemistry, 2015, Article ID: 628833.
https://doi.org/10.5171/2015.628833
Ghernaout, D., Aichouni, M. and Touahmia, M. (2019) Mechanistic Insight into Disinfection by Electrocoagulation—A Review. Desalination, and Water Treatment, 141, 68-81. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2019.23457
Ghernaout, D. (2019) Electrocoagulation and Electrooxidation for Disinfecting Water: New Breakthroughs and Implied Mechanisms. Applied Engineering, 3, 125-133.
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Strategies for Reducing Disinfection By- Products Formation during Electrocoagulation. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6076.
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N., Alghamdi, A. and Ghernaout, B. (2020) Trends in Decreasing Disinfection By-Products Formation during Electrochemical Technologies. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6337. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106337
Darnell, M.E.R., Subbarao, K., Feinstone, S.M. and Taylor, D.R. (2004) Inactivation of the Coronavirus That Induces Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, SARS-CoV. Journal of Virological Methods, 121, 85-91.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jviromet.2004.06.006
Dunkin, N., Weng, S., Schwab, K.J., McQuarrie, J., Bell, K. and Jacangelo, J.G. (2017) Comparative Inactivation of Murine Norovirus and MS2 Bacteriophage by Peracetic Acid and Monochloramine in Municipal Secondary Wastewater Effluent. Environmental Science & Technology, 51, 2972-2981.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b05529
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) Control Strategies in Electrodisinfection. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6396.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106396
Zhang, D., Ling, H., Huang, X., Li, J., Li, W., Yi, C., Zhang, T., Jiang, Y., He, Y., Deng, S., Zhang, X., Wang, X., Liu, Y., Li, G. and Qu, J. (2020) Potential Spreading Risks and Disinfection Challenges of Medical Wastewater by the Presence of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Viral RNA in Septic Tanks of Fangcang Hospital. Science of the Total Environment, 741, Article ID: 140445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140445
Ghernaout, D. (2020) Natural Organic Matter Removal in the Context of the Performance of Drinking Water Treatment Processes—Technical Notes. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6751.
Ghernaout, D., Alshammari, Y., Alghamdi, A., Aichouni, M., Touahmia, M. and Ait Messaoudene, N. (2018) Water Reuse: Extenuating Membrane Fouling in Membrane Processes. International Journal of Environmental Chemistry, 2, 1-12.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajche.20180602.12
Adcock, N.J., Rice, E.W., Sivaganesan, M., Brown, J.D., Stallknecht, D.E. and Swayne, D.E. (2009) The Use of Bacteriophages of the Family Cystoviridae as Surrogates for H5N1 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses in Persistence and Inactivation Studies. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 44, 1362-1366.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10934520903217054
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N. and Ghareba, S. (2019) Drinking Water Reuse: One-Step Closer to Overpassing the “Yuck Factor”. Open Access Library Journal, 6, e5895. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1105895
Casanova, L.M. and Weaver, S.R. (2015) Inactivation of an Enveloped Surrogate Virus in Human Sewage, Environmental Science & Technology Letters, 29, 76-78.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.5b00029
Ghernaout, D., Ghernaout, B. and Boucherit, A. (2008) Effect of pH on Electrocoagulation of Bentonite Suspensions in Batch Using Iron Electrodes. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 29, 1272-1275.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01932690701857483
Ghernaout, D., Naceur, M.W. and Ghernaout, B. (2011) A Review of Electrocoagulation as a Promising Coagulation Process for Improved Organic and Inorganic Matters Removal by Electrophoresis and Electroflotation. Desalination, and Water Treatment, 28, 287-320. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2011.1493
Ghernaout, D., Badis, A., Ghernaout, B. and Kellil, A. (2008) Application of Electrocoagulation in Escherichia coli Culture and Two Surface Waters. Desalination, 219, 118-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.05.010
Belhout, D., Ghernaout, D., Djezzar-Douakh, S. and Kellil, A. (2010) Electrocoagulation of a Raw Water of Ghrib Dam (Algeria) in Batch Using Iron Electrodes. Desalination, and Water Treatment, 16, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1081
Ghernaout, D., Al-Ghonamy, A.I., Boucherit, A., Ghernaout, B., Naceur, M.W., Ait Messaoudene, N., Aichouni, M., Mahjoubi, A.A. and Elboughdiri, N.A. (2015) Brownian Motion and Coagulation Process. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 4, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajeps.s.2015040501.11
Ghernaout, B., Ghernaout, D. and Saiba, A. (2010) Algae and Cyanotoxins Removal by Coagulation/Flocculation: A Review. Desalination, and Water Treatment, 20, 133-143. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1202
Ghernaout, D. (2017) Water Reuse (WR): The Ultimate and Vital Solution for Water Supply Issues. International Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 3, 36- 46. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsdr.20170304.12
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N. and Alghamdi, A. (2019) Direct Potable Reuse: The Singapore NEWater Project as a Role Model. Open Access Library Journal, 6, e5980.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1105980
Ghernaout, D., Benblidia, C. and Khemici, F. (2015) Microalgae Removal from Ghrib Dam (Ain Defla, Algeria) Water by Electroflotation Using Stainless Steel Electrodes. Desalination, and Water Treatment, 54, 3328-3337.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2014.907749
Kellali, Y. and Ghernaout, D. (2019) Physicochemical and Algal Study of Three Dams (Algeria) and Removal of Microalgae by Enhanced Coagulation, Applied Engineering, 3, 56-64.
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Magnetic Field Application: An Underappreciated Outstanding Technology. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6000.
