At COVID-19 time, as surface water and urban wastewater will constantly carry microbial pathogens, pathogens should be eliminated at least to degrees that do not have an effect on public health. Among the pathogen groups observed in water, viruses constitute the biggest danger since they frequently appear in much bigger levels and possess much greater infectivity than bacteria and parasitic protozoa. This work highlights the viruses especially in terms of composition and behavior in ecosystems and discusses the main disinfection techniques, especially thermal demobilization, chlorination and ozonation, and their involved mechanisms. Precise estimates of viral demobilization and log removal throughout water treatment techniques stay crucial for evaluating danger to human health, developing regulations, and informing engineering design of full-scale treatment plants. Practical demobilization details developed at bench-scale for human pathogens like norovirus and COVID-19 will be vital. The more we study the composition of viruses and their fate in ecosystems, and the more we try the techniques for their disposal in water treatment plants, the more we realize that it is difficult to get rid of them using a single treatment method. Employing advanced water treatment trains (such as coagulation, reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration, advanced oxidation) was proposed to guarantee removals of viruses to differing degrees of regulatory control following the degrees of human subjection and related health hazards.
Cite this paper
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020). On the Other Side of Viruses in the Background of Water Disinfection. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6374. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106374.
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Antibiotics Resistance in Water Mediums: Background, Facts, and Trends. Applied Engineering, 4, 1-6.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106003
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Removing Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria (ARB) Carrying Genes (ARGs): Challenges and Future Trends. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6003. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106003
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Should We Forbid the Consumption of Antibiotics to Stop the Spread of Resistances in Nature? Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6138.
Ghernaout, D. (2019) Virus Removal by Electrocoagulation and Electrooxidation: New Findings and Future Trends. Journal of Environmental Science and Allied Research, 85-90.
Ghernaout, D. and Ghernaout, B. (2010) From Chemical Disinfection to Electrodisinfection: The Obligatory Itinerary? Desalination and Water Treatment, 16, 156-175.
https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1085
Ghernaout, D., Benblidia, C. and Khemici, F. (2015) Microalgae Removal from Ghrib Dam (Ain Defla, Algeria) Water by Electroflotation Using Stainless Steel Electrodes. Desalination and Water Treatment, 54, 3328-3337.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2014.907749
Kellali, Y. and Ghernaout, D. (2019) Physicochemical and Algal Study of Three Dams (Algeria) and Removal of Microalgae by Enhanced Coagulation. Applied Engineering, 3, 56-64.
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) UV-C/H2O2 and Sunlight/H2O2 in the Core of the Best Available Technologies for Dealing with Present Dares in Domestic Wastewater Reuse. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6161.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106161
Ghernaout, D. (2013) Advanced Oxidation Phenomena in Electrocoagulation Process: A Myth or a Reality? Desalination and Water Treatment, 51, 7536-7554.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2013.792520
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Advanced Oxidation Processes for Wastewater Treatment: Facts and Future Trends. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6139.
Ghernaout, D., Badis, A., Ghernaout, B. and Kellil, A. (2008) Application of Electrocoagulation in Escherichia coli Culture and Two Surface Waters. Desalination, 219, 118-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.05.010
Ghernaout, D., Badis, A., Braikia, G., Mataam, N., Fekhar, M., Ghernaout, B. and Boucherit, A. (2017) Enhanced Coagulation for Algae Removal in a Typical Algeria Water Treatment Plant. Environmental Engineering and Management Journal, 16, 2303-2315. https://doi.org/10.30638/eemj.2017.238
Belhout, D., Ghernaout, D., Djezzar-Douakh, S. and Kellil, A. (2010) Electrocoagulation of a Raw Water of Ghrib Dam (Algeria) in Batch Using Iron Electrodes. Desalination and Water Treatment, 16, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1081
Ghernaout, D. (2018) Electrocoagulation Process: Achievements and Green Perspectives. Colloid and Surface Science, 3, 1-5.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.css.20180301.11
Ghernaout, D., Ghernaout, B. and Naceur, M.W. (2011) Embodying the Chemical Water Treatment in the Green Chemistry—A Review. Desalination, 271, 1-10.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.01.032
Ghernaout, D. (2013) The Best Available Technology of Water/Wastewater Treatment and Seawater Desalination: Simulation of the Open Sky Seawater Distillation. Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 3, 68-88. https://doi.org/10.4236/gsc.2013.32012
Ghernaout, D. (2017) Environmental Principles in the Holy Koran and the Sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 6, 75-79. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20170603.13
Ghernaout, D. (2018) Magnetic Field Generation in the Water Treatment Perspectives: An Overview. International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences, 5, 193-203. https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2018.01.025
Eterpi, M., McDonnell, G. and Thomas, V. (2009) Disinfection against Parvoviruses. Journal of Hospital Infection, 73, 64-70.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2009.05.016
Liew, P. and Gerba, C.P. (1980) Thermo-Stabilization of Enteroviruses on Estuarine Sediment. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 40, 305-308.
https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.40.2.305-308.1980
Ghernaout, D., Aichouni, M. and Touahmia, M. (2019) Mechanistic Insight into Disinfection by Electrocoagulation—A Review. Desalination and Water Treatment, 141, 68-81. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2019.23457
Ghernaout, D., Alghamdi, A. and Ghernaout, B. (2019) Microorganisms’ Killing: Chemical Disinfection vs. Electrodisinfection. Applied Engineering, 3, 13-19.
Ghernaout, D. (2019) Electrocoagulation and Electrooxidation for Disinfecting Water: New Breakthroughs and Implied Mechanisms. Applied Engineering, 3, 125-133.
Stewart, M.W. and Olson, B.H. (1996) Bacterial Resistance to Potable Water Disinfectants. In: Modeling Disease Transmission and Its Prevention by Disinfection, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 140-192.
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N., Ghareba, S. and Salih, A. (2020) Electrochemical Advanced Oxidation Processes (EAOPs) for Disinfecting Water—Fresh Perspectives. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6257. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106257
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N., Ghareba, S. and Salih, A. (2020) Disinfecting Water with the Carbon Fiber-Based Flow-Through Electrode System (FES): Towards Axial Dispersion and Velocity Profile. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6238.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106238
Ghernaout, D., Ghernaout, B. and Boucherit, A. (2008) Effect of pH on Electrocoagulation of Bentonite Suspensions in Batch Using Iron Electrodes. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 29, 1272-1275.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01932690701857483
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Magnetic Field Application: An Underappreciated Outstanding Technology. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6000.
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N. and Alghamdi, A. (2019) Direct Potable Reuse: The Singapore NEWater Project as a Role Model. Open Access Library Journal, 6, e5980.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1105980
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N. and Ghareba, S. (2020) Fenton Technology for Wastewater Treatment: Dares and Trends. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6045.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106045
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Domestic Wastewater Treatment: Difficulties and Reasons, and Prospective Solutions—China as an Example. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6141.
Ghernaout, D., Ghernaout, B., Saiba, A., Boucherit, A. and Kellil, A. (2009) Removal of Humic Acids by Continuous Electromagnetic Treatment Followed by Electrocoagulation in Batch Using Aluminium Electrodes. Desalination, 239, 295-308.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2008.04.001
Ghernaout, D., Ghernaout, B., Boucherit, A., Naceur, M.W., Khelifa, A. and Kellil, A. (2009) Study on Mechanism of Electrocoagulation with Iron Electrodes in Idealised Conditions and Electrocoagulation of Humic Acids Solution in Batch Using Aluminium Electrodes. Desalination and Water Treatment, 8, 91-99.
https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2009.668
Saiba, A., Kourdali, S., Ghernaout, B. and Ghernaout, D. (2010) In Desalination, from 1987 to 2009, the Birth of a New Seawater Pretreatment Process: Electrocoagulation—An Overview. Desalination and Water Treatment, 16, 201-217.
https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1094
Bates, R.C., Shaffer, P.T.B. and Sutherland, S.M. (1977) Development of Poliovirus Having Increased Resistance to Chlorine Inactivation. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 33, 849-853. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.34.6.849-853.1977
Ghernaout, B., Ghernaout, D. and Saiba, A. (2010) Algae and Cyanotoxins Removal by Coagulation/Flocculation: A Review. Desalination and Water Treatment, 20, 133-143. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1202
Ghernaout, D., Mariche, A., Ghernaout, B. and Kellil, A. (2010) Electromagnetic Treatment-Bi-Electrocoagulation of Humic Acid in Continuous Mode Using Response Surface Method for Its Optimization and Application on Two Surface Waters. Desalination and Water Treatment, 22, 311-329.
https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1120
Ghernaout, D. and Naceur, M.W. (2011) Ferrate(VI): In Situ Generation and Water Treatment—A Review. Desalination and Water Treatment, 30, 319-332.
https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2011.2217
Ghernaout, D. and Ghernaout, B. (2012) Sweep Flocculation as a Second Form of Charge Neutralisation—A Review. Desalination and Water Treatment, 44, 15-28.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2012.691699
Ghernaout, D. and Ghernaout, B. (2012) On the Concept of the Future Drinking Water Treatment Plant: Algae Harvesting from the Algal Biomass for Biodiesel Production—A Review. Desalination and Water Treatment, 49, 1-18.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2012.708191
Ghernaout, D., Al-Ghonamy, A.I., Naceur, M.W., Ait Messaoudene, N. and Aichouni, M. (2014) Influence of Operating Parameters on Electrocoagulation of C.I. Disperse Yellow 3. Journal of Electrochemical Science and Engineering, 4, 271-283.
https://doi.org/10.5599/jese.2014.0065
Ghernaout, D., Al-Ghonamy, A.I., Irki, S., Grini, A., Naceur, M.W., Ait Messaoudene, N. and Aichouni, M. (2014) Decolourization of Bromophenol Blue by Electrocoagulation Process. Trends in Chemical Engineering, 15, 29-39.
Ghernaout, D. (2017) Water Reuse (WR): The Ultimate and Vital Solution for Water Supply Issues. International Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 3, 36-46. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsdr.20170304.12
Ghernaout, D., Aichouni, M. and Alghamdi, A. (2018) Applying Big Data (BD) in Water Treatment Industry: A New Era of Advance. International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences, 5, 89-97. https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2018.03.013
Djezzar, S., Ghernaout, D., Cherifi, H., Alghamdi, A., Ghernaout, B. and Aichouni, M. (2018) Conventional, Enhanced, and Alkaline Coagulation for Hard Ghrib Dam (Algeria) Water. World Journal of Applied Chemistry, 3, 41-55.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjac.20180302.12
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N. and Ghareba, S. (2019) Drinking Water Reuse: One-Step Closer to Overpassing the “Yuck Factor”. Open Access Library Journal, 6, e5895. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1105895
Ghernaout, D. (2018) Increasing Trends towards Drinking Water Reclamation from Treated Wastewater. World Journal of Applied Chemistry, 3, 1-9.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjac.20180301.11
Ghernaout, D., Alshammari, Y. and Alghamdi, A. (2018) Improving Energetically Operational Procedures in Wastewater Treatment Plants. International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences, 5, 64-72. https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2018.09.010
Al Arni, S., Amous, J. and Ghernaout, D. (2019) On the Perspective of Applying of a New Method for Wastewater Treatment Technology: Modification of the Third Traditional Stage with Two Units, One by Cultivating Microalgae and Another by Solar Vaporization. International Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources, 16, 555934. https://doi.org/10.19080/IJESNR.2019.16.555934
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2019) Upgrading Wastewater Treatment Plant to Obtain Drinking Water. Open Access Library Journal, 6, e5959.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1105959
Alvarez, M.E. and O’Brien, R.T. (1982) Effects of Chlorine Concentration on the Structure of Poliovirus. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 43, 237-239.
https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.43.1.237-239.1982
Vaughn, J.M. and Novotny, J.F. (1991) Virus Inactivation by Disinfectants. In: Hurst, C.J., Ed., Modeling the Environmental Fate of Microorganisms, American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC, 217-241.
Wigginton, K.R., Pecson, B.M., Sigstam, T., Bosshard, F. and Kohn, T. (2012) Virus Inactivation Mechanisms: Impact of Disinfectants on Virus Function and Structural Integrity. Environmental Science & Technology, 46, 12069-12078.
https://doi.org/10.1021/es3029473
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Towards Enhancing Ozone Diffusion for Water Disinfection—Short Notes. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6253.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106253
Boucherit, A., Moulay, S., Ghernaout, D., Al-Ghonamy, A.I., Ghernaout, B., Naceur, M.W., Ait Messaoudene, N., Aichouni, M., Mahjoubi, A.A. and Elboughdiri, N.A. (2015) New Trends in Disinfection By-Products Formation upon Water Treatment. Journal of Research & Developments in Chemistry, 2015, Article ID 628833.
https://doi.org/10.5171/2015.628833
Ghernaout, D., Naceur, M.W. and Aouabed, A. (2011) On the Dependence of Chlorine By-Products Generated Species Formation of the Electrode Material and Applied Charge during Electrochemical Water Treatment. Desalination, 270, 9-22.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.01.010
Ghernaout, D. (2018) Disinfection and DBPs Removal in Drinking Water Treatment: A Perspective for a Green Technology. International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences, 5, 108-117. https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2018.02.018
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Strategies for Reducing Disinfection By-Products Formation during Electrocoagulation. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6076. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106076
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Controlling Disinfection By-Products formation in Rainwater: Technologies and Trends. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6162. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106162
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Eliminating Cyanobacteria and Controlling Algal Organic Matter—Short Notes. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6252.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106252
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N., Ghareba, S. and Salih, A. (2020) Coagulation Process for Removing Algae and Algal Organic Matter—An Overview. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6272. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106272
Ghernaout, D., Ghernaout, B. and Kellil, A. (2009) Natural Organic Matter Removal and Enhanced Coagulation as a Link between Coagulation and Electrocoagulation. Desalination and Water Treatment, 2, 203-222.
https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2009.116
Ghernaout, D., Naceur, M.W. and Ghernaout, B. (2011) A review of Electrocoagulation as a Promising Coagulation Process for Improved Organic and Inorganic Matters Removal by Electrophoresis and Electroflotation. Desalination and Water Treatment, 28, 287-320. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2011.1493
Ghernaout, D. (2014) The Hydrophilic/Hydrophobic Ratio vs. Dissolved Organics Removal by Coagulation—A Review. Journal of King Saud University—Science, 26, 169-180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2013.09.005
Choi, M., Kim, J., Kim, J.Y., Yoon, J. and Kim, J.H. (2010) Mechanisms of Escherichia coli Inactivation by Several Disinfectants. Water Research, 44, 3410-3418.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2010.03.017
Ran, Z., Li, S., Huang, J., Yuan, Y., Cui, C. and Williams, C.D. (2010) Inactivation of Cryptosporidium by Ozone and Cell Ultrastructures. Journal of Environmental Sciences (China), 22, 1954-1959. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(09)60345-4
Gerba, C.P., Betancourt, W.Q., Kitajima, M. and Rock, C.M. (2018) Reducing Uncertainty in Estimating Virus Reduction by Advanced Water Treatment Processes. Water Research, 133, 282-288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.01.044
Ghernaout, D., Simoussa, A., Alghamdi, A., Ghernaout, B., Elboughdiri, N., Mahjoubi, A., Aichouni, M. and El-Wakil, A.E.A. (2018) Combining Lime Softening with Alum Coagulation for Hard Ghrib Dam Water Conventional Treatment. International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences, 5, 61-70.
https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2018.05.008
Ghernaout, D., Al-Ghonamy, A.I., Boucherit, A., Ghernaout, B., Naceur, M.W., Ait Messaoudene, N., Aichouni, M., Mahjoubi, A.A. and Elboughdiri, N.A. (2015) Brownian Motion and Coagulation Process. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 4, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajeps.s.2015040501.11
Ghernaout, D., Al-Ghonamy, A.I., Naceur, M.W., Boucherit, A., Messaoudene, N.A., Aichouni, M., Mahjoubi, A.A. and Elboughdiri, N.A. (2015) Controlling Coagulation Process: From Zeta Potential to Streaming Potential. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 4, 16-27.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajeps.s.2015040501.12
Ghernaout, D. and El-Wakil, A. (2017) Requiring Reverse Osmosis Membranes Modifications—An Overview. American Journal of Chemical Engineering, 5, 81-88.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajche.20170504.15
Ghernaout, D. (2017) Reverse Osmosis Process Membranes Modeling—A Historical Overview. Journal of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, 2, 112-122.
Ghernaout, D., Alshammari, Y., Alghamdi, A., Aichouni, M., Touahmia, M. and Ait Messaoudene, N. (2018) Water Reuse: Extenuating Membrane Fouling in Membrane Processes. International Journal of Environmental Chemistry, 2, 1-12.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajche.20180602.12
Ait Messaoudene, N., Naceur, M.W., Ghernaout, D., Alghamdi, A. and Aichouni, M. (2018) On the Validation Perspectives of the Proposed Novel Dimensionless Fouling Index. International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences, 5, 116-122.
https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2018.07.014
Ghernaout, D., El-Wakil, A., Alghamdi, A., Elboughdiri, N. and Mahjoubi, A. (2018) Membrane Post-Synthesis Modifications and How It Came about. International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences, 5, 60-64.
https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2018.02.010
Guerrero-Latorre, L., Gonzales-Gustavson, E., Hundesa, A., Sommer, R. and Rosina, G. (2016) UV Disinfection and Flocculation-Chlorination Sachets to Reduce Hepatitis E Virus in Drinking Water. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 219, 405-411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2016.04.002
Schijven, J., Teunis, P., Suylen, T., Ketelaars, H., Hornstra, L. and Rutjes, S. (2019) QMRA of Adenovirus in Drinking Water at a Drinking Water Treatment Plant Using UV and Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection. Water Research, 158, 34-45.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.03.090
Dunkin, N., Weng, S.C., Coulter, C.G., Jacangelo, J.G. and Schwab, K.J. (2018) Impacts of Virus Processing on Human Norovirus GI and GII Persistence during Disinfection of Municipal Secondary Wastewater Effluent. Water Research, 134, 1-12.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.01.053
Zhang, H., Zheng, L., Li, Z., Pi, K. and Deng, Y. (2020) One-Step Ferrate(VI) Treatment as a Core Process for Alternative Drinking Water Treatment. Chemosphere, 242, 125134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125134
Ghernaout, D. and Boucherit, A. (2015) Review of Coagulation’s Rapid Mixing for NOM Removal. Journal of Research & Developments in Chemistry, 2015, Article ID: 926518. https://doi.org/10.5171/2015.926518
Ghernaout, D. (2017) The Holy Koran Revelation: Iron Is a “Sent Down” Metal. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 6, 101-104.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20170604.14
Ghernaout, D., Irki, S. and Boucherit, A. (2014) Removal of Cu2 and Cd2 , and Humic Acid and Phenol by Electrocoagulation Using Iron Electrodes. Desalination and Water Treatment, 52, 3256-3270.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2013.852484
Irki, S., Ghernaout, D. and Naceur, M.W. (2017) Decolourization of Methyl Orange (MO) by Electrocoagulation (EC) Using Iron Electrodes under a Magnetic Field (MF). Desalination and Water Treatment, 79, 368-377.
https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2017.20797
Irki, S., Ghernaout, D., Naceur, M.W., Alghamdi, A. and Aichouni, M. (2018) Decolorization of Methyl Orange (MO) by Electrocoagulation (EC) Using Iron Electrodes under a Magnetic Field (MF). II. Effect of Connection Mode. World Journal of Applied Chemistry, 3, 56-64. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjac.20180302.13
Heffron, J., McDermid, B., Maher, E., McNamara, P.J. and Mayer, B.K. (2019) Mechanisms of Virus Mitigation and Suitability of Bacteriophages as Surrogates in Drinking Water Treatment by Iron Electrocoagulation. Water Research, 163, 114877.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.114877
