Disinfecting water and wastewater electrochemically is a cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative for the chemical disinfection. During electrochemical disinfection, the water is passed through an electrolytic cell which is equipped with a set of electrodes. The effectiveness of the process depends upon cell configuration, electrode material, electrolyte composition, microorganism, water flow rate, and current density. One of the main advantages of electrodisinfection is the on-site production of disinfectants; thereby the common drawbacks of chlorination including transportation and storage of hazardous chemicals can be avoided. On the other hand, the high cell voltages due to low electrical conductivity of water and the high capital cost are the main bottlenecks for electrodisinfection. The generation of chlorinated by-products stays the main worry related to electrochemical water treatment processes. This work discusses the main tendencies in dealing with such issues. In some setups, the electrolyte separates the anode and cathode is a proton exchange membrane. This assists to reduce the formation of perchlorate and such conduct is improved in the smallest cell for which the so short contact periods between the electrodes and the water helps to avert the formation of perchlorates when working in a single-pass mode, which becomes a really remarkable point. Other strategies are examined such as developed electrochemical advanced oxidation process, the electroperoxone (E-peroxone) process, which combines ozonation with in situ electro-generation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) from cathodic oxygen reduction. Electrochemical processes could be merged with nanotechnologies for better efficiency in dealing with pathogens and pollutants removal. In the next future, a hybrid process combining both techniques would be suggested as a part of treatment train for treating water and wastewater.
Cite this paper
Ghernaout, D. , Elboughdiri, N. , Alghamdi, A. and Ghernaout, B. (2020). Trends in Decreasing Disinfection By-Products Formation during Electrochemical Technologies. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6337. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106337.
Isidro, J., Brackemeyer, D., Sáez, C., Llanos, J., Lobato, J., Ca？izares, P., Matthée, T. and Rodrigo, M.A. (2020) How to Avoid the Formation of Hazardous Chlorates and Perchlorates during Electro-Disinfection with Diamond Anodes? Journal of Environmental Management, 265, Article ID: 110566.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110566
Ghernaout, D., Naceur, M.W. and Aouabed, A. (2011) On the Dependence of Chlorine By-Products Generated Species Formation of the Electrode Material and Applied Charge during Electrochemical Water Treatment. Desalination, 270, 9-22.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.01.010
Ghernaout, D., Ghernaout, B. and Naceur, M.W. (2011) Embodying the Chemical Water Treatment in the Green Chemistry: A Review. Desalination, 271, 1-10.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.01.032
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N., Ghareba, S. and Salih, A. (2020) Electrochemical Advanced Oxidation Processes (EAOPs) for Disinfecting Water-Fresh Perspectives. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6257. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106257
Ghernaout, D., Benblidia, C. and Khemici, F. (2015) Microalgae Removal from Ghrib Dam (Ain Defla, Algeria) Water by Electroflotation Using Stainless Steel Electrodes. Desalination and Water Treatment, 54, 3328-3337.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2014.907749
Ghernaout, D., Alghamdi, A. and Ghernaout, B. (2019) Microorganisms’ Killing: Chemical Disinfection vs. Electrodisinfection. Applied Engineering, 3, 13-19.
Ghernaout, D. and Ghernaout, B. (2010) From Chemical Disinfection to Electrodisinfection: The Obligatory Itinerary? Desalination and Water Treatment, 16, 156-175. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1085
Ghernaout, D., Badis, A., Ghernaout, B. and Kellil, A. (2008) Application of Electrocoagulation in Escherichia coli Culture and Two Surface Waters. Desalination, 219, 118-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.05.010
Ghernaout, D. (2019) Electrocoagulation and Electrooxidation for Disinfecting Water: New Breakthroughs and Implied Mechanisms. Applied Engineering, 3, 125-133.
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2019) Mechanistic Insight into Disinfection Using Ferrate(VI). Open Access Library Journal, 6, e5946.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1105946
Belhout, D., Ghernaout, D., Djezzar-Douakh, S. and Kellil, A. (2010) Electrocoagulation of a Raw Water of Ghrib Dam (Algeria) in Batch Using Iron Electrodes. Desalination and Water Treatment, 16, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1081
Henquin, E.R., Colli, A.N., Bergmann, M.E.H. and Bisang, J.M. (2013) Characterization of a Bipolar Parallel-Plate Electrochemical Reactor for Water Disinfection Using Low Conductivity Drinking Water. Chemical Engineering and Processing, 65, 45-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2012.12.007
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Disinfection By-Products: Presence and Elimination in Drinking Water. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6140.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106140
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Strategies for Reducing Disinfection By-Products Formation during Electrocoagulation. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6076. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106076
Ghernaout, D. (2018) Disinfection and DBPs Removal in Drinking Water Treatment: A Perspective for a Green Technology. International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences, 5, 108-117. https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2018.02.018
Cano, A., Barrera, C., Cotillas, S., Llanos, J., Canizares, P. and Rodrigo, M.A. (2016) Use of DiaCell Modules for the Electro-Disinfection of Secondary-Treated Wastewater with Diamond Anodes. Chemical Engineering Journal, 306, 433-440.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2016.07.090
Ghernaout, D. (2019) Virus Removal by Electrocoagulation and Electrooxidation: New Findings and Future Trends. Journal of Environmental Science and Allied Research, 2019, 85-90. https://doi.org/10.29199/2637-7063/ESAR-202024
Ghernaout, D., Aichouni, M. and Touahmia, M. (2019) Mechanistic Insight into Disinfection by Electrocoagulation—A Review. Desalination and Water Treatment, 141, 68-81. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2019.23457
Ghernaout, D. (2018) Electrocoagulation Process: Achievements and Green Perspectives. Colloid and Surface Science, 3, 1-5.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.css.20180301.11
Ghernaout, D., Alghamdi, A., Aichouni, M. and Touahmia, M. (2018) The Lethal Water Tri-Therapy: Chlorine, Alum, and Polyelectrolyte. World Journal of Applied Chemistry, 3, 65-71. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjac.20180302.14
Ghernaout, D., Moulay, S., Ait Messaoudene, N., Aichouni, M., Naceur, M.W. and Boucherit, A. (2014) Coagulation and Chlorination of NOM and Algae in Water Treatment: A Review. International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, 2, 23-34. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijema.s.2014020601.14
Bruguera-Casamada, C., Sires, I., Brillas, E. and Araujo, R.M. (2017) Effect of Electrogenerated Hydroxyl Radicals, Active Chlorine and Organic Matter on the Electrochemical Inactivation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Using BDD and Dimensionally Stable Anodes. Separation and Purification Technology, 178, 224-231.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2017.01.042
Schaefer, C.E., Andaya, C. and Urtiaga, A. (2015) Assessment of Disinfection and By-Product Formation during Electrochemical Treatment of Surface Water Using a Ti/IrO2 Anode. Chemical Engineering Journal, 264, 411-416.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2014.11.082
Li, Y., Kemper, J.M., Datuin, G., Akey, A., Mitch, W.A. and Luthy, R.G. (2016) Reductive Dehalogenation of Disinfection Byproducts by an Activated Carbon-Based Electrode System. Water Research, 98, 354-362.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.04.019
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Controlling Disinfection By-Products Formation in Rainwater: Technologies and Trends. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6162. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106162
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Towards Enhancing Ozone Diffusion for Water Disinfection—Short Notes. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6253.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106253
Boucherit, A., Moulay, S., Ghernaout, D., Al-Ghonamy, A.I., Ghernaout, B., Naceur, M.W., Ait Messaoudene, N., Aichouni, M., Mahjoubi, A.A. and Elboughdiri, N.A. (2015) New Trends in Disinfection By-Products Formation upon Water Treatment. Journal of Research & Developments in Chemistry, 2015, Article ID: 628833.
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N., Ghareba, S. and Salih, A. (2020) Disinfecting Water with the Carbon Fiber-Based Flow-Through Electrode System (FES): Towards Axial Dispersion and Velocity Profile. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6238.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106238
Ghernaout, D. (2017) Environmental Principles in the Holy Koran and the Sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 6, 75-79. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20170603.13
Ghernaout, D. and Naceur, M.W. (2011) Ferrate(VI): In Situ Generation and Water Treatment—A Review. Desalination and Water Treatment, 30, 319-332.
https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2011.2217
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N. and Ghareba, S. (2020) Fenton Technology for Wastewater Treatment: Dares and Trends. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6045.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106045
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Advanced Oxidation Processes for Wastewater Treatment: Facts and Future Trends. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6139. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106139
Ghernaout, D. (2013) Advanced Oxidation Phenomena in Electrocoagulation Process: A Myth or a Reality? Desalination and Water Treatment, 51, 7536-7554.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2013.792520
Julio, F.R., Hilario, T.-P., Mabel, V.M., Raymundo, L.C., Arturo, L.-R. and Neftal, R.-V.M. (2015) Disinfection of an Advanced Primary Effluent Using Peracetic Acid or Ultraviolet Radiation for Its Reuse in Public Services. Journal of Water and Health, 13, 118-124. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2014.028
Rajab, M., Heim, C., Letzel, T., Drewes, J.E. and Helmreich, B. (2015) Electrochemical Disinfection Using Boron-Doped Diamond Electrode—The Synergetic Effects of in Situ Ozone and Free Chlorine Generation. Chemosphere, 121, 47-53.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.10.075
Valero, P., Verbel, M., Silva-Agredo, J., Mosteo, R., Ormad, M.P. and Torres-Palma, R.A. (2017) Electrochemical Advanced Oxidation Processes for Staphylococcus aureus Disinfection in Municipal WWTP Effluents. Journal of Environmental Management, 198, 256-265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.04.070
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) UV-C/H2O2 and Sunlight/H2O2 in the Core of the Best Available Technologies for Dealing with Present Dares in Domestic Wastewater Reuse. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6161.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106161
Ghernaout, D., Laribi, C., Alghamdi, A., Ghernaout, B., Ait Messaoudene, N. and Aichouni, M. (2018) Decolorization of BF Cibacete Blue (CB) and Red Solophenyle 3BL (RS) Using Aluminum Sulfate and Ferric Chloride. World Journal of Applied Chemistry, 3, 32-40. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjac.20180302.11
Ghernaout, D. and Ghernaout, B. (2011) On the Controversial Effect of Sodium Sulphate as Supporting Electrolyte on Electrocoagulation Process: A Review. Desalination and Water Treatment, 27, 243-254. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2011.1983
Rahmani, A.R., Samarghandi, M.R., Nematollahi, D. and Zamani, F. (2019) A Comprehensive Study of Electrochemical Disinfection of Water Using Direct and Indirect Oxidation Processes. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 7, Article ID: 102785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2018.11.030
Jung, Y.J., Baek, K.W., Oh, B.S. and Kang, J.-W. (2010) An Investigation of the Formation of Chlorate and Perchlorate during Electrolysis Using Pt/Ti Electrodes: The Effects of pH and Reactive Oxygen Species and the Results of Kinetic Studies. Water Research, 44, 5345-5355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2010.06.029
Liu, K., Bai, L., Shi, Y., Wei, Z., Spinney, R., G？kta？, R.K., Dionysiou, D.D. and Xiao, R.R. (2020) Simultaneous Disinfection of E. faecalis and Degradation of Carbamazepine by Sulfate Radicals: An Experimental and Modelling Study. Environmental Pollution. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114558
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Antibiotics Resistance in Water Mediums: Background, Facts, and Trends. Applied Engineering, 4, 1-6.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106003
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Removing Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria (ARB) Carrying Genes (ARGs): Challenges and Future Trends. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6003. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106003
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Should We Forbid the Consumption of Antibiotics to Stop the Spread of Resistances in Nature? Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6138.
Anfruns-Estrada, E., Bruguera-Casamada, C., Salvadó, H., Brillas, E., Sirés, I. and Araujo, R.M. (2017) Inactivation of Microbiota from Urban Wastewater by Single and Sequential Electrocoagulation and Electro-Fenton Treatments. Water Research, 126, 450-459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.09.056
Ghernaout, D., Alghamdi, A. and Ghernaout, B. (2019) Electrocoagulation Process: A Mechanistic Review at the Dawn of Its Modeling. Journal of Environmental Science and Allied Research, 2, 51-67.
https://doi.org/10.29199/2637-7063/ESAR-201019
Irki, S., Ghernaout, D., Naceur, M.W., Alghamdi, A. and Aichouni, M. (2018) Decolorizing Methyl Orange by Fe-Electrocoagulation Process—A Mechanistic Insight. International Journal of Environmental Chemistry, 2, 18-28.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijec.20180201.14
Irki, S., Ghernaout, D., Naceur, M.W., Alghamdi, A. and Aichouni, M. (2018) Decolorization of Methyl Orange (MO) by Electrocoagulation (EC) Using Iron Electrodes under a Magnetic Field (MF). II. Effect of Connection Mode. World Journal of Applied Chemistry, 3, 56-64. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjac.20180302.13
Irki, S., Ghernaout, D. and Naceur, M.W. (2017) Decolourization of Methyl Orange (MO) by Electrocoagulation (EC) Using Iron Electrodes under a Magnetic Field (MF). Desalination and Water Treatment, 79, 368-377.
https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2017.20797
Ghernaout, D., Al-Ghonamy, A.I., Ait Messaoudene, N., Aichouni, M., Naceur, M.W., Benchelighem, F.Z. and Boucherit, A. (2015) Electrocoagulation of Direct Brown 2 (DB) and BF Cibacete Blue (CB) Using Aluminum Electrodes. Separation Science and Technology, 50, 1413-1420.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01496395.2014.982763
Ghernaout, D. and Ghernaout, B. (2012) Sweep Flocculation as a Second Form of Charge Neutralisation—A Review. Desalination and Water Treatment, 44, 15-28.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2012.691699
Ghernaout, B., Ghernaout, D. and Saiba, A. (2010) Algae and Cyanotoxins Removal by Coagulation/Flocculation: A Review. Desalination and Water Treatment, 20, 133-143. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1202
Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N., Ghareba, S. and Salih, A. (2020) Coagulation Process for Removing Algae and Algal Organic Matter—An Overview. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6272. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106272
Yao, W., Fu, J., Yang, H., Yu, G. and Wang, Y. (2019) The Beneficial Effect of Cathodic Hydrogen Peroxide Generation on Mitigating Chlorinated By-Product Formation during Water Treatment by an Electro-Peroxone Process. Water Research, 157, 209-217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.03.049
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) On the Treatment Trains for Municipal Wastewater Reuse for Irrigation. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6088.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106088
Hussain, S.N., Trzcinski, A.P., Asghar, H.M.A., Sattar, H., Brown, N.W. and Roberts, E.P.L. (2016) Disinfection Performance of Adsorption Using Graphite Adsorbent Coupled with Electrochemical Regeneration for Various Microorganisms Present in Water. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 44, 216-225.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2016.09.009
