Electrochemical technology for the killing of pathogens has been largely investigated. Lately, Ni et al. [1] published excellent research on the disinfection efficiency of a carbon fiber-based flow-through electrode system (FES) versus Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and fecal coliform) and Gram-positive bacteria (Enterococcus faecalis and Bacillus subtilis) in normal saline over a large span of applied voltages (1 - 5 V) and hydraulic retention times (HRTs) (1 - 10 s). They established that the Gram-negative microbes were more susceptible to FES for their thinner cell walls and over 6.5 log reduction (no live bacteria found) was obtained at the applied voltage of 2 V and HRT of 2 s; however, Gram-positive microbes were demobilized at slightly bigger voltages (3 V, 2 s) or longer HRTs (2 V, 5 s). Demobilizing microorganisms was related to the alteration and laceration of cell membranes mostly via anode direct oxidation in the absence of bacterial regrowth. Further, the disregarding formation of the free chlorine at low voltages (≤2 V) could avert the production of possible chlorinated disinfection by-products. Therefore, FES could furnish an undeveloped substitute to traditional disinfection processes for eliminating pathogens in water. This work concludes that focusing on axial dispersion and velocity profile inside anode will be very useful in comprehending the transport phenomena and proposing a fresh model that merges the axial dispersion and velocity profile for the FES. Such a research trend will more encourage the FES implementation at the large industrial level for disinfecting water.
Cite this paper
Ghernaout, D. , Elboughdiri, N. , Ghareba, S. and Salih, A. (2020). Disinfecting Water with the Carbon Fiber-Based Flow-Through Electrode System (FES): Towards Axial Dispersion and Velocity Profile. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6238. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106238.
Muraca, P., Stout, J.E. and Yu, V.L. (1987) Comparative Assessment of Chlorine, Heat, Ozone, and UV Light for Killing Legionella pneumophila within a Model Plumbing System. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 53, 447-453.
https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.53.2.447-453.1987
Shah, A.D., Dotson, A.D., Linden, K.G. and Mitch, W.A. (2011) Impact of UV Disinfection Combined with Chlorination/Chloramination on the Formation of Halonitromethanes and Haloacetonitriles in Drinking Water. Environmental Science & Technology, 45, 3657-3664. https://doi.org/10.1021/es104240v
Fang, J., Liu, H., Shang, C., Zeng, M., Mengling, N. and Liu, W. (2014) E.coli and Bacteriophage MS2 Disinfection by UV, Ozone and the Combined UV and Ozone Processes. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 8, 547-552.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-013-0620-2
Mecha, A.C., Onyango, M.S., Ochieng, A. and Momba, M.N.B. (2017) Evaluation of Synergy and Bacterial Regrowth in Photocatalytic Ozonation Disinfection of Municipal Wastewater. Science of the Total Environment, 601-602, 626-635.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.204
Pan, Y., Zhang, X. and Zhai, J. (2015) Whole Pictures of Halogenated Disinfection Byproducts in Tap Water from China’s Cities. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 9, 121-130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-014-0727-0
von Gunten, U. (2003) Ozonation of Drinking Water: Part II. Disinfection and by-Product Formation in Presence of Bromide, Iodide or Chlorine. Water Research, 37, 1469-1487. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(02)00458-X
Oguma, K., Katayama, H., Mitani, H., Morita, S., Hirata, T. and Ohgaki, S. (2001) Determination of Pyrimidine Dimers in Escherichia coli and Cryptosporidium parvum during UV Light Inactivation, Photoreactivation, and Dark Repair. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 67, 4630-4637.
https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.67.10.4630-4637.2001
Martínez-Huitle, C.A. and Brillas, E. (2008) Electrochemical Alternatives for Drinking Water Disinfection. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 47, 1998-2005.
https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.200703621
Chen, S., Hu, W., Hong, J. and Sandoe, S. (2016) Electrochemical Disinfection of Simulated Ballast Water on PbO2/Graphite Felt Electrode. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 105, 319-323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.02.003
Jeong, J., Kim, C. and Yoon, J. (2009) The Effect of Electrode Material on the Generation of Oxidants and Microbial Inactivation in the Electrochemical Disinfection Processes. Water Research, 43, 895-901.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2008.11.033
Ghernaout, D., Naceur, M.W. and Aouabed, A. (2011) On the Dependence of Chlorine by-Products Generated Species Formation of the Electrode Material and Applied Charge during Electrochemical Water Treatment. Desalination, 270, 9-22.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.01.010
Sires, I., Brillas, E., Oturan, M.A., Rodrigo, M.A. and Panizza, M. (2014) Electrochemical Advanced Oxidation Processes: Today and Tomorrow. A Review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 21, 8336-8367.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2783-1
Martinez-Huitle, C.A., Rodrigo, M.A., Sires, I. and Scialdone, O. (2015) Single and Coupled Electrochemical Processes and Reactors for the Abatement of Organic Water Pollutants: A Critical Review. Chemical Reviews, 115, 13362-13407.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00361
Casta?eda, L.F., Walsh, F.C., Nava, J.L. and Ponce de León, C. (2017) Graphite Felt as a Versatile Electrode Material: Properties, Reaction Environment, Performance and Applications. Electrochimica Acta, 258, 1115-1139.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2017.11.165
Ghernaout, D., Badis, A., Ghernaout, B. and Kellil, A. (2008) Application of Electrocoagulation in Escherichia coli Culture and Two Surface Waters. Desalination, 219, 118-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.05.010
Schoen, D.T., Schoen, A.P., Hu, L., Kim, H.S., Heilshorn, S.C. and Cui, Y. (2010) High Speed Water Sterilization Using One-Dimensional Nanostructures. Nano Letters, 10, 3628-3632. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl101944e
Diao, H.F., Li, X.Y., Gu, J.D., Shi, H.C. and Xie, Z.M. (2004) Electron Microscopic Investigation of the Bactericidal Action of Electrochemical Disinfection in Comparison with Chlorination, Ozonation and Fenton Reaction. Process Biochemistry, 39, 1421-1426. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-9592(03)00274-7
Ghernaout, D. and Ghernaout, B. (2010) From Chemical Disinfection to Electrodisinfection: The Obligatory Itinerary? Desalination and Water Treatment, 16, 156-175.
https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1085
Huo, Z.Y., Liu, H., Yu, C., Wu, Y.H., Hu, H.Y. and Xie, X. (2019) Elevating the Stability of Nanowire Electrodes by Thin Polydopamine Coating for Low-Voltage Electroporation-Disinfection of Pathogens in Water. Chemical Engineering Journal, 369, 1005-1013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.03.146
Budin, G., Chung, H.J., Lee, H. and Weissleder, R. (2012) A Magnetic Gram Stain for Bacterial Detection. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 51, 7752-7755.
https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201202982
Racyte, J., Bernard, S., Paulitsch-Fuchs, A.H., Yntema, D.R., Bruning, H. and Rijnaarts, H.H. (2013) Alternating Electric Fields Combined with Activated Carbon for Disinfection of Gram Negative and Gram Positive Bacteria in Fluidized Bed Electrode System. Water Research, 47, 6395-6405.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.08.011
Ghernaout, D., Alghamdi, A. and Ghernaout, B. (2019) Microorganisms’ Killing: Chemical Disinfection vs. Electrodisinfection. Applied Engineering, 3, 13-19.
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Electrocoagulation Process in the Context of Disinfection Mechanism. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6083.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106083
Loraine, G., Chahine, G., Hsiao, C.T., Choi, J.K. and Aley, P. (2012) Disinfection of Gram-Negative and Gram-Positive Bacteria Using DynaJets? Hydrodynamic Cavitating Jets. Ultrasound and Sonochemistry, 19, 710-717.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2011.10.011
Martínez-Huitle, C.A. and Panizza, M. (2018) Electrochemical Oxidation of Organic Pollutants for Wastewater Treatment. Current Opinion in Electrochemistry, 11, 62-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coelec.2018.07.010
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2019) Mechanistic Insight into Disinfection Using Ferrate(VI). Open Access Library Journal, 6, e5946.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1105946
Ghernaout, D., Aichouni, M. and Touahmia, M. (2019) Mechanistic Insight into Disinfection by Electrocoagulation: A Review. Desalination and Water Treatment, 141, 68-81. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2019.23457
Kapa?ka, A., Fóti, G. and Comninellis, C. (2009) The Importance of Electrode Material in Environmental Electrochemistry: Formation and Reactivity of Free Hydroxyl Radicals on Boron-Doped Diamond Electrodes. Electrochimica Acta, 54, 2018-2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2008.06.045
Singla, J., Sangal, V.K., Singh, A. and Verma, A. (2020) Application of Mixed Metal Oxide Anode for the Electro-Oxidation/Disinfection of Synthetic Urine: Potential of Harnessing Molecular Hydrogen Generation. Journal of Environmental Management, 255, Article ID: 109847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109847
Fazli-Abukheyli, R. and Darvishi, P. (2019) Combination of Axial Dispersion and Velocity Profile in Parallel Tanks-in-Series Compartment Model for Prediction of Residence Time Distribution in a Wide Range of Non-Ideal Laminar Flow Regimes. Chemical Engineering Science, 195, 531-540.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2018.09.052
Rastegar, S.O. and Gu, T. (2017) Empirical Correlations for Axial Dispersion Coefficient and Peclet Number in Fixed-Bed Columns. Journal of Chromatography A, 1490, 133-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2017.02.026
Malayeri, M., Lee, C.-S., Haghighat, F. and Klimes, L. (2020) Modeling of Gas-Phase Heterogeneous Photocatalytic Oxidation Reactor in the Presence of Mass Transfer Limitation and Axial Dispersion. Chemical Engineering Journal, 386, Article ID: 124013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.124013
Thines, R.K., Mubarak, N.M., Nizamuddin, S., Sahu, J.N., Abdullah, E.C. and Ganesan, P. (2017) Application Potential of Carbon Nanomaterials in Water and Wastewater Treatment: A Review. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 72, 116-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2017.01.018