全部 标题 作者
关键词 摘要

OALib Journal期刊
ISSN: 2333-9721
费用：99美元
投递稿件

查看量下载量

Direct Potable Reuse: The Singapore NEWater Project as a Role Model

DOI: 10.4236/oalib.1105980, PP. 1-10

Subject Areas: Hydrology, Environmental Sciences

Keywords: Water Reuse, Direct Potable Reuse, Water Scarcity, Membrane Processes, Wastewater Treatment, Drinking Water

Full-Text   Cite this paper   Add to My Lib

Abstract

In Singapore, indirect potable water reuse has been applied during the last two decades. Now, water reuse furnishes around 30% of the nation’s water request and the well-known NEWater success story has greatly participated in transforming Singapore into a global hydro hub for pioneering novel water techniques. This work discusses the recent technological improvements and the outlooks for water reuse in Singapore as a model. Fields of attentions comprise membrane exploitation (involving forward, reverse and pressure retarded osmosis, as well as membrane bioreactors), advanced oxidation processes, electrochemical methods, and their combination as cost-effective tailored solutions to tackle novel dares as diverse as direct potable reuse. The challenge is to duplicate the Singapore NEWater success story throughout the world. Efforts should be accomplished to generalize such encouraging and rich experience especially in poor countries where humans are dying because of lack of water or due to diseases caused by contaminated water.

Cite this paper

Ghernaout, D. , Elboughdiri, N. and Alghamdi, A. (2019). Direct Potable Reuse: The Singapore NEWater Project as a Role Model. Open Access Library Journal, 6, e5980. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1105980.

References

[1]  Asano, T. (2002) Water from (Waste) Water—The Dependable Water Resource (the 2001 Stockholm Water Prize Laureate Lecture). Water Science and Technology, 45, 23-33.
https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2002.0137
[2]  Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N. and Al Arni, S. (2019) Water Reuse (WR): Dares, Restrictions, and Trends. Applied Engineering, 3, 159-170.
[3]  Lefebvre, O. (2018) Beyond NEWater: An Insight into Singapore’s Water Reuse Prospects. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 2, 26-31.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2017.12.001
[4]  Ghernaout, D., Ghernaout, B. and Naceur, M.W. (2011) Embodying the Chemical Water Treatment in the Green Chemistry—A Review. Desalination, 271, 1-10.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.01.032
[5]  Ghernaout, D. (2017) Environmental Principles in the Holy Koran and the Sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 6, 75-79.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20170603.13
[6]  Mekonnen, M.M. and Hoekstra, A.Y. (2016) Four Billion People Facing Severe Water Scarcity. Science Advances, 2, 1-6.
https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500323
[7]  Ghernaout, D. and Ghernaout, B. (2012) On the Concept of the Future Drinking Water Treatment Plant: Algae Harvesting from the Algal Biomass for Biodiesel Production—A Review. Desalination and Water Treatment, 49, 1-18.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2012.708191
[8]  Ghernaout, D. (2013) The Best Available Technology of Water/Wastewater Treatment and Seawater Desalination: Simulation of the Open Sky Seawater Distillation. Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 3, 68-88.
https://doi.org/10.4236/gsc.2013.32012
[9]  Lee, H. and Tan, T.P. (2016) Singapore’s Experience with Reclaimed Water: NEWater. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 32, 611-621.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2015.1120188
[10]  Ghernaout, D., El-Wakil, A., Alghamdi, A., Elboughdiri, N. and Mahjoubi, A. (2018) Membrane Post-Synthesis Modifications and How It Came about. International Journal of Advanced and Applied Sciences, 5, 60-64.
https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2018.02.010
[11]  Ghernaout, D., Alshammari, Y., Alghamdi, A., Aichouni, M., Touahmia, M. and Ait Messaoudene, N. (2018) Water Reuse: Extenuating Membrane Fouling in Membrane Processes. International Journal of Environmental Chemistry, 2, 1-12.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajche.20180602.12
[12]  Ghernaout, D. and El-Wakil, A. (2017) Requiring Reverse Osmosis Membranes Modifications: An Overview. American Journal of Chemical Engineering, 5, 81-88.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajche.20170504.15
[13]  Ghernaout, D. (2017) Reverse Osmosis Process Membranes Modeling: A Historical Overview. Journal of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, 2, 112-122.
[14]  Ching, L. and Yu, D.J.H. (2010) Turning the Tide: Informal Institutional Change in Water Reuse. Water Policy, 12, 121-134.
https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2010.117
[15]  Ghernaout, D., Elboughdiri, N. and Ghareba, S. (2019) Drinking Water Reuse: One-Step Closer to Overpassing the “Yuck Factor”. Open Access Library Journal, 6, e5895.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1105895
[16]  Ghernaout, D. and Ghernaout, B. (2010) From Chemical Disinfection to Electrodisinfection: The Obligatory Itinerary? Desalination and Water Treatment, 16, 156-175.
https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1085
[17]  Ghernaout, D., Naceur, M.W. and Aouabed, A. (2011) On the Dependence of Chlorine By-Products Generated Species Formation of the Electrode Material and Applied Charge during Electrochemical Water Treatment. Desalination, 270, 9-22.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.01.010
[18]  Ghernaout, D., Alghamdi, A. and Ghernaout, B. (2019) Microorganisms’ Killing: Chemical Disinfection vs. Electrodisinfection. Applied Engineering, 3, 13-19.
[19]  Ghernaout, D. (2019) Greening Electrocoagulation Process for Disinfecting Water. Applied Engineering, 3, 27-31.
[20]  Ghernaout, D., Badis, A., Ghernaout, B. and Kellil, A. (2008) Application of Electrocoagulation in Escherichia coli Culture and Two Surface Waters. Desalination, 219, 118-125.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.05.010
[21]  Ko？uti？, K. and Kunst, B. (2002) Removal of Organics from Aqueous Solutions by Commercial RO and NF Membranes of Characterized Porosities. Desalination, 142, 47-56.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(01)00424-6
[22]  PUB (Public Utilities Board) (2002) In Singapore Water Reclamation Study: Expert Panel Review and Findings, NEWater Expert Panel.
[23]  Ghernaout, D. (2019) Brine Recycling: Towards Membrane Processes as the Best Available Technology, Applied Engineering, 3, 71-84.
[24]  Ghernaout, D. (2019) Reviviscence of Biological Wastewater Treatment: A Review. Applied Engineering, 3, 46-55.
[25]  Chung, T.S., Luo, L., Wan, C.F., Cui, Y. and Amy, G. (2015) What Is Next for Forward Osmosis (FO) and Pressure Retarded Osmosis (PRO). Separation and Purification Technology, 156, 856-860.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2015.10.063
[26]  Han, G., Cheng, Z.L. and Chung, T.-S. (2017) Thin-Film Composite (TFC) Hollow Fiber Membrane with Double-Polyamide Active Layers for Internal Concentration Polarization and Fouling Mitigation in Osmotic Processes. Journal of Membrane Science, 523, 497-504.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2016.10.022
[27]  Ghernaout, D. (2013) Advanced Oxidation Phenomena in Elec-trocoagulation Process: A Myth or a Reality? Desalination and Water Treatment, 51, 7536-7554.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2013.792520
[28]  Cheng, L., Zhang, T., Vo, H., Diaz, D., Quanrud, D., Arnold, R.G. and Sáez, A.E. (2017) Effectiveness of Engineered and Natural Wastewater Treatment Processes for the Removal of Trace Organics in Water Reuse. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 143, 18-36.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001214
[29]  Boucherit, A., Moulay, S., Ghernaout, D., Al-Ghonamy, A.I., Ghernaout, B., Naceur, M.W., Ait Messaoudene, N., Aichouni, M., Mahjoubi, A.A. and Elboughdiri, N.A. (2015) New Trends in Disinfection By-Products Formation upon Water Treatment. Journal of Research & Developments in Chemistry, 2015, Article ID: 628833.
https://doi.org/10.5171/2015.628833
[30]  Bourgin, M., Borowska, E., Helbing, J., Hollender, J., Kaiser, H.-P., Kienle, C., McArdell, C.S., Simon, E. and von Gunten, U. (2017) Effect of Operational and Water Quality Parameters on Conventional Ozonation and the Advanced Oxidation Process O3/H2O2: Kinetics of Micropollutant Abatement, Transformation Product and Bromate Formation in a Surface Water. Water Research, 122, 234-245.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.05.018
[31]  Anumol, T., Dagnino, S., Vandervort, D.R. and Snyder, S.A. (2016) Transformation of Polyfluorinated Compounds in Natural Waters by Advanced Oxidation Processes. Chemosphere, 144, 1780-1787.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.10.070
[32]  Zeng, T., Plewa, M.J. and Mitch, W.A. (2016) N-Nitrosamines and Halogenated Disinfection By-Products in U.S. Full Advanced Treatment Trains for Potable Reuse. Water Research, 101, 176-186.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.03.062
[33]  Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2019) Mechanistic Insight into Disinfection Using Ferrate (VI). Open Access Library Journal, 6, e5946.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1105946
[34]  Ghernaout, D. (2017) Water Treatment Chlorination: An Updated Mechanistic Insight Review. Chemistry Research Journal, 2, 125-138.
[35]  Ghernaout, D. (2018) Disinfection and DBPs Removal in Drinking Water Treatment: A Perspective for a Green Technology. International Journal of Advanced and Applied Sciences, 5, 108-117.
https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2018.02.018
[36]  Sgroi, M., Roccaro, P., Oelker, G.L. and Snyder, S.A. (2015) N-Nitrosodimethyl Amine (NDMA) Formation at an Indirect Potable Reuse Facility. Water Research, 7, 174-183.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.11.051
[37]  Sgroi, M., Vagliasindi, F.G.A., Snyder, S.A. and Roccaro, P. (2018) N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and Its Precursors in Water and Wastewater: A Review on Formation and Removal. Chemosphere, 191, 685-703.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.10.089
[38]  Schindler Wildhaber, Y., Mestankova, H., Scharer, M., Schirmer, K., Salhi, E. and von Gunten, U. (2015) Novel Test Procedure to Evaluate the Treatability of Wastewater with Ozone. Water Research, 75, 324-335.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.02.030
[39]  Ghernaout, D. (2017) The Holy Koran Revelation: Iron Is a “Sent Down” Metal. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 6, 101-104.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20170604.14
[40]  Klamerth, N., Rizzo, L., Malato, S., Maldonado, M.I., Agüera, A. and Fernández-Alba, A.R. (2010) Degradation of Fifteen Emerging Contaminants at mg/L Initial Concentrations by Mild Solar Photo-Fenton in MWTP Effluents. Water Research, 44, 545-554.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.09.059
[41]  Bianco, A., Polo Lopez, M.I., Fernandez Ibanez, P., Brigante, M. and Mailhot, G. (2017) Disinfection of Water Inoculated with Enterococcus faecalis Using Solar/Fe(III)EDDS-H2O2 or Process. Water Research, 118, 249-260.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.03.061
[42]  Ghernaout, D. (2019) Disinfection via Electrocoagulation Process: Implied Mechanisms and Future Tendencies. EC Microbiology, 15, 79-90.
[43]  Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2019) Iron Electrocoagulation Process for Disinfecting Water: A Review. Applied Engineering, 3, 154-158.
[44]  Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2019) Electrocoagulation Process Intensification for Disinfecting Water: A Review. Applied Engineering, 3, 140-147.
[45]  Ghernaout, D., Alghamdi, A., Touahmia, M., Aichouni, M. and Ait Messaoudene, N. (2018) Nanotechnology Phenomena in the Light of the Solar Energy. Journal of Energy, Environmental & Chemical Engineering, 3, 1-8.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jeece.20180301.11
[46]  Ghernaout, D. (2019) Electrocoagulation and Electrooxidation for Disinfecting Water: New Breakthroughs and Implied Mechanisms, Applied Engineering, 3, 125-133.
[47]  Ghernaout, D. (2019) Virus Removal by Electrocoagulation and Electrooxidation: New Findings and Future Trends. Journal of Environmental Science and Allied Research, 2019, 85-90.
https://doi.org/10.29199/2637-7063/ESAR-202024
[48]  Ghernaout, D. (2019) Electrocoagulation Process for Microalgal Biotechnology: A Review. Applied Engineering, 3, 85-94.
[49]  Lynn, W., Heron, J. and Mayer, B.K. (2019) Electrocoagulation as a Pretreatment for Electroxidation of E. coli. Water, 11, 2509.
[50]  Brillas, E., Sires, I. and Oturan, M.A. (2009) Electro-Fenton Process and Related Electrochemical Technologies Based on Fenton’s Reaction Chemistry. Chemical Reviews, 109, 6570-6631.
https://doi.org/10.1021/cr900136g
[51]  Ghernaout, D. (2017) Microorganisms’ Electrochemical Disinfection Phenomena. EC Microbiology, 9, 160-169.
[52]  Mousset, E., Ko, Z.T., Syafiq, M., Wang, Z. and Lefebvre, O. (2016) Electrocatalytic Activity Enhancement of a Graphene Ink-Coated Carbon Cloth Cathode for Oxidative Treatment. Electrochimica Acta, 222, 1628-1641.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2016.11.151
[53]  Mousset, E., Wang, Z., Hammaker, I. and Lefebvre, O. (2016) Physico-Chemical Properties of Pristine Graphene and Its Performance as Electrode Material for Electro-Fenton Treatment of Wastewater. Electrochimica Acta, 214, 217-230.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2016.08.002
[54]  Mousset, E., Wang, Z. and Lefebvre, O. (2016) Electro-Fenton for Control and Removal of Micropollutants-Process Optimization and Energy Efficiency. Water Science and Technology, 74, 2068-2074.
https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2016.353
[55]  Becheleni, E.M.A., Borba, R.P., Seckler, M.M. and Rocha, S.D.F. (2015) Water Recovery from Saline Streams Produced by Electrodialysis. Environmental Technology, 36, 386-394.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2014.978898
[56]  Liu, R.D., Wang, Y.K., Wu, G., Luo, J.N. and Wang, S.G. (2017) Development of a Selective Electrodialysis for Nutrient Recovery and Desalination during Secondary Effluent Treatment. Chemical Engineering Journal, 322, 224-233.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2017.03.149
[57]  Lee, L.Y., Ng, H.Y., Ong, S.L., Tao, G., Kekre, K., Viswanath, B., Lay, W. and Seah, H. (2009) Integrated Pretreatment with Capacitive Deionization for Reverse Osmosis Reject Recovery from Water Reclamation Plant. Water Research, 43, 4769-4777.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.08.006
[58]  Tao, G., Viswanath, B., Kekre, K., Lee, L.Y., Ng, H.Y., Ong, S.L. and Seah, H. (2011) RO Brine Treatment and Recovery by Biological Activated Carbon and Capacitive Deionization Process. Water Science and Technology, 64, 77-82.
https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.604
[59]  Qin, J.-J., Kekre, K.A., Tao, G., Oo, M.H., Wai, M.N., Lee, T.C., Viswanath, B. and Seah, H. (2006) New Option of MBR-RO Process for Production of NEWater from Domestic Sewage. Journal of Membrane Science, 272, 70-77.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2005.07.023
[60]  Ghernaout, D. (2019) Greening Cold Fusion as an Energy Source for Water Treatment Distillation: A Perspective. American Journal of Quantum Chemistry and Molecular Spectroscopy, 3, 1-5.
[61]  Eyvaz, M., Aslan, T., Arslan, S., Yuksel, E. and Koyuncu, I. (2016) Recent Developments in Forward Osmosis Membrane Bioreactors: A Comprehensive Review. Desalination and Water Treatment, 57, 28610-28645.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2016.1193448
[62]  Drewes, J. and Khan, S. (2015) Contemporary Design, Operation, and Monitoring of Potable Reuse Systems. Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination, 5, 1-7.
https://doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2014.148
[63]  Ghernaout, D. (2017) Water Reuse (WR): The Ultimate and Vital Solution for Water Supply Issues. International Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 3, 36-46.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsdr.20170304.12
[64]  Ghernaout, D. (2018) Increasing Trends towards Drinking Water Reclamation from Treated Wastewater. World Journal of Applied Chemistry, 3, 1-9.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjac.20180301.11
[65]  Pecson, B.M., Triolo, S.C., Olivieri, S., Chen, E.C., Pisarenko, A.N., Yang, C.-C., Olivieri, A., Haas, C.N., Trussell, R.S. and Trussell, R.R. (2017) Reliability of Pathogen Control in Direct Potable Reuse: Performance Evaluation and QMRA of a Full-Scale 1 MGD Advanced Treatment Train. Water Research, 122, 258-268.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.06.014
[66]  Ghernaout, D. (2018) Magnetic Field Generation in the Water Treatment Perspectives: An Overview. International Journal of Advanced and Applied Sciences, 5, 193-203.
https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2018.01.025
[67]  Ghernaout, D., Ghernaout, B. and Kellil, A. (2009) Natural Organic Matter Removal and Enhanced Coagulation as a Link between Coagulation and Electrocoagulation. Desalination and Water Treatment, 2, 203-222.
https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2009.116
[68]  Ghernaout, D. (2014) The Hydro-philic/Hydrophobic Ratio vs. Dissolved Organics Removal by Coagulation: A Review. Journal of King Saud Universi-ty—Science, 26, 169-180.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2013.09.005
[69]  Ghernaout, D., Moulay, S., Ait Messa-oudene, N., Aichouni, M., Naceur, M.W. and Boucherit, A. (2014) Coagulation and Chlorination of NOM and Algae in Water Treatment: A Review. International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, 2, 23-34.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijema.s.2014020601.14
[70]  Ghernaout, D., Al-Ghonamy, A.I., Boucherit, A., Ghernaout, B., Naceur, M.W., Ait Messaoudene, N., Aichouni, M., Mahjoubi, A.A. and Elboughdiri, N.A. (2015) Brownian Motion and Coagulation Process. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 4, 1-15.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajeps.s.2015040501.11
[71]  Fawell, J. and Ong, C.N. (2012) Emerging Contaminants and the Implications for Drinking Water. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 28, 247-263.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2012.672394

Full-Text


comments powered by Disqus

Contact Us

service@oalib.com

QQ:3279437679

WhatsApp +8615387084133

WeChat 1538708413




©2008-2020 OALib, Inc | Public user content licensed CC-BY 4.0 unless otherwise specified. OALib ISSN Online: 2333-9721 OALib ISSN Print: 2333-9705