All Title Author
Keywords Abstract

Publish in OALib Journal
ISSN: 2333-9721
APC: Only $99
Paper Submission

ViewsDownloads

Predictors of Re-Emerging Tuberculosis: A Review

DOI: 10.4236/oalib.1102520, PP. 1-18

Subject Areas: Internal Medicine

Keywords: Tuberculosis, Risk Factors, Predictors, Socio-Economic, Comorbidities

Full-Text   Cite this paper   Add to My Lib

Abstract

Tuberculosis (TB) is a deadly disease that still remains a global burden despite of world-wide measures to curb the disease. As of 2015, the goals of the WHO STOP TB Strategy (2006-2015) have been met and the new WHO End TB Strategy (2015-2030) has been implemented with aim of eradicating the disease. Following that, further studies have demonstrated that TB is a disease that cannot be controlled purely by anti-tuberculous medication alone. It is widely understood that various factors such as rising income inequality, overcrowding populations, compliance to healthcare and resistance pose great barriers to the eradication of disease. In many developing countries including Malaysia, TB is showing or re-emerging trend in both reported cases and resistance. Various predictors for poor disease outcome have been mentioned in the literature such as demographic factors, socio-economic instability and severe comorbidities amongst the population. Therefore, a prompt review and understanding of the factors at play in the sequestration of TB cases in high risk groups may better inform preventative measures in the future.

 Cite this paper

Shajahan, R. , Navaratnam, P. , Kasinathan, G. , Kadirvelu, A. and Pillai, N. (2016). Predictors of Re-Emerging Tuberculosis: A Review. Open Access Library Journal, 3, e2520. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1102520.

References

[1]  Zaman, K. (2010) Tuberculosis: A Global Health Problem. Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition, 28, 111.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/jhpn.v28i2.4879
[2]  Ducati, R.G., Ruffino-Netto, A., Basso, L.A. and Santos, D.S. (2006) The Resumption of Consumption: A Review on Tuberculosis. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 101, 697-714.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762006000700001
[3]  Knechel, N.A. (2009) Tuberculosis: Pathophysiology, Clinical Features, and Diagnosis. Critical Care Nurse, 29, 34- 43.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4037/ccn2009968
[4]  Glickman, M.S. and Jacobs, W.R. (2001) Microbial Pathogenesis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Dawn of a Discipline. Cell, 104, 477-485.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(01)00236-7
[5]  Maher, D. (2009) The Natural History of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection in Adults. Tuberculosis: A Comprehensive Clinical Reference. 129-132.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-4160-3988-4.00013-5
[6]  Clinical Practice Guidelines (2012) Management of Tuberculosis. In: Ministry of Health Malaysia AoMMatMTS, Ed., 3rd Edition, Malaysia Health Technology Assessment Section (MaHTAS) of the Medical Development Division, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Putrajaya, 2-5, 80-83.
[7]  (2015) Global Tuberculosis Report 2015. World Health Organization.
[8]  Lauzardo, M. and Ashkin, D. (2000) Phthisiology at the Dawn of the New Century: A Review of Tuberculosis and the Prospects for Its Elimination. Chest, 117, 1455-1473.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.117.5.1455  
[9]  Organization, W.H. (2010) Treatment of Tuberculosis: Guidelines. World Health Organization.
[10]  Iyawoo, K. (2004) Tuberculosis in Malaysia: Problems and Prospect of Treatment and Control. Tuberculosis, 84, 4-7.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tube.2003.08.014
[11]  Society, A.T., America IDSo (2003) Treatment of Tuberculosis. MMWR Recommendations and Reports: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Recommendations and Reports/Centers for Disease Control, 52, 1.
[12]  (2008) Implementing the WHO Stop TB Strategy: A Handbook for National TB Control Programmes. World Health Organization.
[13]  Ortblad, K.F., Salomon, J.A., Barnighausen, T. and Atun, R. (2015) Stopping Tuberculosis: A Biosocial Model for Sustainable Development. The Lancet, 386, 2354-2362.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00324-4
[14]  Sistem Maklumat Tibi Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia (2011) Fakta-Fakta Utama Program Kawalan Tibi. Unpublished Document.
[15]  Lin, C.-H., Lin, C.-J., Kuo, Y.-W., Wang, J.-Y., Hsu, C.-L., Chen, J.-M., et al. (2014) Tuberculosis Mortality: Patient Characteristics and Causes. BMC Infectious Diseases, 14, 5.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-14-5
[16]  Nachega, J.B. and Chaisson, R.E. (2003) Tuberculosis Drug Resistance: A Global Threat. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 36, S24-S30.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/344657
[17]  Elmi, O.S., Hasan, H., Abdullah, S., Jeab, M.Z.M., Alwi, Z.B. and Naing, N.N. (2015) Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis and Risk Factors Associated with Its Development: A Retrospective Study. The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries, 9, 1076-1085.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3855/jidc.6162
[18]  Davies, P.D. (2000) Tuberculosis: The Global Epidemic. Journal of the Indian Medical Association, 98, 100-102.
[19]  (2014) Country Progress Report. Ministry of Health Malaysia, Philippines.
[20]  (2014) Estimates of Tuberculosis and MDR-TB Profile-Malaysia. World Health Organisation.
[21]  Jaafar, S., Suhaili, M., Mohd Noh, K., Ehsan, F. and Lee, F. (2010) Malaysia: Primary Health Care Key to Intersectoral Action for Health and Equity. World Health Organization and Public Health Agency of Canada.
http://www.who.int/entity/social_determinants/resources/isa_primary_care_mys.pdf
[22]  Ibrahim, J. (2010) Tuberculosis: An Eight Year (2000-2007) Retrospective Study at the University of Malaya Medical Centre (UMMC), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, 41, 378-385.
[23]  Nissapatorn, V., Lim, Y., Jamaiah, I., Chin, H.M., Ilyana, M., Nonaziah, M., Hasifah, A.S. and Kuppusamy, I. (2007) Tuberculosis in Malaysia: A Continuing Surge. The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, 38, 231-239.
[24]  Venugopalan, B. (2004) An Evaluation of the Tuberculosis Control Programme of Selangor State, Malaysia for the Year 2001. The Medical journal of Malaysia, 59, 20-25.
[25]  Nantha, S. (2014) A Review of Tuberculosis Research in Malaysia. Medical Journal of Malaysia, 69, 88-102.
[26]  Shimao, T. (2005) [Tuberculosis and Its Control—Lessons from the Past and Future Prospect]. Kekkaku: [Tuberculosis], 80, 481-489.
[27]  Leong, C. (2006) Pre-Employment Medical Examination of Indonesian Domestic Helpers in a Private Clinic in Johor Bahru—An Eight Year Review. Medical Journal of Malaysia, 61, 592-598.
[28]  Organization, W.H. (2008) Health Equity through Intersectoral Action: An Analysis of 18 Country Case Studies. Public Health Agency of Canada.
[29]  (2014) Tuberculosis MAftPo Stop TB at the Source. In: Adlan, Y.J.H.Y., Ed., MAPTB Newsletter, Ministry of Health Malaysia.
[30]  Dormandy, T. (2000) The White Death: A History of Tuberculosis. New York University Press, New York.
[31]  Marmot, M., Friel, S., Bell, R., Houweling, T.A. and Taylor, S., on behalf of the Commission on Social Determinants of Health (2008) Closing the Gap in a Generation: Health Equity through Action on the Social Determinants of Health. The Lancet, 372, 1661-1669.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61690-6
[32]  Hargreaves, J.R., Boccia, D., Evans, C.A., Adato, M., Petticrew, M. and Porter, J. (2011) The Social Determinants of Tuberculosis: From Evidence to Action. American Journal of Public Health, 101, 654-662.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2010.199505
[33]  Narasimhan, P., Wood, J., MacIntyre, C.R. and Mathai, D. (2013) Risk Factors for Tuberculosis. Pulmonary Medicine, 2013, Article ID: 828939.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/828939
[34]  Orofino, R. de L., Brasil, P.E., Trajman, A., Schmaltz, C.A., Dalcolmo, M. and Rolla, V.C. (2012) Predictors of Tuberculosis Treatment Outcomes. Jornal Brasileiro de Pneumologia, 38, 88-97.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1806-37132012000100013
[35]  Dujaili, J.A., Sulaiman, S.A.S., Hassali, M.A., Awaisu, A., Blebil, A.Q. and Bredle, J.M. (2015) Health-Related Quality of Life as a Predictor of Tuberculosis Treatment Outcomes in Iraq. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 31, 4-8.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2014.12.004
[36]  Choi, H., Lee, M., Chen, R.Y., Kim, Y., Yoon, S., Joh, J.S., et al. (2014) Predictors of Pulmonary Tuberculosis Treatment Outcomes in South Korea: A Prospective Cohort Study, 2005-2012. BMC Infectious Diseases, 14, 360.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-14-360
[37]  Naidoo, P., Peltzer, K., Louw, J., Matseke, G., Mchunu, G. and Tutshana, B. (2013) Predictors of Tuberculosis (TB) and Antiretroviral (ARV) Medication Non-Adherence in Public Primary Care Patients in South Africa: A Cross Sectional study. BMC Public Health, 13, 396.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-396
[38]  Hussain, H., Akhtar, S. and Nanan, D. (2003) Prevalence of and Risk Factors Associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection in Prisoners, North West Frontier Province, Pakistan. International Journal of Epidemiology, 32, 794-799.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyg247
[39]  Ismail, I. and Bulgiba, A. (2013) Predictors of Death during Tuberculosis Treatment in TB/HIV Co-Infected Patients in Malaysia. PLoS ONE, 8, e73250.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073250
[40]  Watkins, R.E. and Plant, A.J. (2002) Predicting Tuberculosis among Migrant Groups. Epidemiology and Infection, 129, 623-628.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0950268802007604
[41]  Marais, B.J., Gie, R.P., Schaaf, H.S., Hesseling, A.C., Obihara, C.C., Nelson, L.J., et al. (2004) The Clinical Epidemiology of Childhood Pulmonary Tuberculosis: A Critical Review of Literature from the Pre-Chemotherapy Era. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 8, 278-285.
[42]  Tocque, K., Regan, M., Remmington, T., Beeching, N., Jamieson, I., Syed, Q. and Davies, P.D. (1999) Social Factors Associated with Increases in Tuberculosis Notifications. European Respiratory Journal, 13, 541-545.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/09031936.99.13354199
[43]  Diwan, V.K. and Thorson, A. (1999) Sex, Gender, and Tuberculosis. The Lancet, 353, 1000-1001.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(99)01318-5
[44]  Diwan, V., Thorson, A. and Winkvist, A. (1998) Gender and Tuberculosis: An International Workshop. Report from an International Research Workshop at the Nordic School of Public Health, Nordic School of Public Health, Goteborg, 24-26 May 1998.
[45]  Coussens, A.K., Wilkinson, R.J., Nikolayevskyy, V., Elkington, P.T., Hanifa, Y., Islam, K., et al. (2013) Ethnic Variation in Inflammatory Profile in Tuberculosis. PLoS Pathogens, 9, e1003468.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003468
[46]  Sulaiman, S.A., Khan, A.H., Muttalif, A.R., Hassali, M.A., Ahmad, N. and Iqubal, M.S. (2013) Impact of Diabetes Mellitus on Treatment Outcomes of Tuberculosis Patients in Tertiary Care Setup. The American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 345, 321-325.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MAJ.0b013e318288f8f3
[47]  (2015) Migration and Tuberculosis: A Pressing Issue. In: Division, M.H., Ed., International Organization for Migration.
[48]  Mondal, M.N.I., Nazrul, H.M., Chowdhury, M.R.K. and Howard, J. (2014) Socio-Demographic Factors Affecting Knowledge Level of Tuberculosis Patients in Rajshahi City, Bangladesh. African Health Sciences, 14, 855-865.
[49]  Shetty, N., Shemko, M. and Abbas, A. (2004) Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices Regarding Tuberculosis among Immigrants of Somalian Ethnic Origin in London: A Cross-Sectional Study. Communicable Disease and Public Health/PHLS, 7, 77-82.
[50]  Noh, K. and Jaafar, S., Eds. (2011) Health in All Policies: The Primary Health Care Approach in Malaysia. 50-Years Experience in Addressing Social Determinants of Health through Intersectoral Action for Health. Draft Background Paper, World Conference on Social Determinants of Health, Rio de Janeiro, 19-21 October 2011.
[51]  Mokhtar, K.S., Rahman, N., Shariff, N. and Nor, W.A.W.M. (2012) Tuberculosis in Malaysia: A Study on the Level of Societal Awareness and Stigma. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1, 59-64.
http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/0837-0145964
[52]  Lonnroth, K., Jaramillo, E., Williams, B.G., Dye, C. and Raviglione, M. (2009) Drivers of Tuberculosis Epidemics: The Role of Risk Factors and Social Determinants. Social Science & Medicine, 68, 2240-2246.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.03.041
[53]  Nava-Aguilera, E., Andersson, N., Harris, E., Mitchell, S., Hamel, C., Shea, B., et al. (2009) Risk Factors Associated with Recent Transmission of Tuberculosis: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 13, 17-26.
[54]  Lee, M., Leung, C., Kam, K., Wong, M., Leung, M., Tam, C., et al. (2008) Early and Late Tuberculosis Risks among Close Contacts in Hong Kong. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 12, 281-287.
[55]  Al-Darraji, H.A.A., Kamarulzaman, A. and Altice, F.L. (2014) Latent Tuberculosis Infection in a Malaysian Prison: Implications for a Comprehensive Integrated Control Program in Prisons. BMC Public Health, 14, 22.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-22
[56]  O’Boyle, S., Power, J., Ibrahim, M. and Watson, J. (2002) Factors Affecting Patient Compliance with Anti-Tubercu- losis Chemotherapy Using the Directly Observed Treatment, Short-Course Strategy (DOTS). The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 6, 307-312.
[57]  Lienhardt, C., Fielding, K., Sillah, J., Tunkara, A., Donkor, S., Manneh, K., et al. (2003) Risk Factors for Tuberculosis Infection in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Contact Study in the Gambia. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 168, 448-455.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200212-1483OC
[58]  Morrison, J., Pai, M. and Hopewell, P.C. (2008) Tuberculosis and Latent Tuberculosis Infection in Close Contacts of People with Pulmonary Tuberculosis in Low-Income and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 8, 359-368.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(08)70071-9
[59]  Asia WHO-WPS-E (2008) Health in Asia and the Pacific. World Health Organisation, 51 p.
[60]  Bates, M.N., Khalakdina, A., Pai, M., Chang, L., Lessa, F. and Smith, K.R. (2007) Risk of Tuberculosis from Exposure to Tobacco Smoke: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Archives of Internal Medicine, 167, 335-342.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.167.4.335
[61]  Arcavi, L. and Benowitz, N.L. (2004) Cigarette Smoking and Infection. Archives of Internal Medicine, 164, 2206-2216.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.164.20.2206
[62]  Lonnroth, K., Williams, B.G., Stadlin, S., Jaramillo, E. and Dye, C. (2008) Alcohol Use as a Risk Factor for Tuberculosis—A Systematic Review. BMC Public Health, 8, 289.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-8-289
[63]  Moran-Mendoza, O., Marion, S., Elwood, K., Patrick, D. and FitzGerald, J. (2010) Risk Factors for Developing Tuberculosis: A 12-Year Follow-Up of Contacts of Tuberculosis Cases. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 14, 1112-1119.
[64]  Al-Darraji, H.A., Wong, K.C., Yeow, D.G., Fu, J.J., Loeliger, K., Paiji, C., et al. (2014) Tuberculosis Screening in a Novel Substance Abuse Treatment Center in Malaysia: Implications for a Comprehensive Approach for Integrated Care. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 46, 144-149.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2013.08.023
[65]  Phelps, G. and Crabtree, S. (2013) Worldwide, Median Household Income About $10,000. The Gallup Organization.
[66]  Department of Statistics (2015) Report of Household Income and Basic Amenities Survey 2014. Household Income & Expenditure.
[67]  Elamin, E.I., Ibrahim, M.I., Sulaiman, S.A. and Muttalif, A.R. (2008) Cost of Illness of Tuberculosis in Penang, Malaysia. Pharmacy World & Science: PWS, 30, 281-286.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11096-007-9185-0
[68]  Abdul Razak, M. (2004) Significance of Symptoms and Investigations in Tubeculosis Case Finding. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2, 29-30.
[69]  Nissapatorn, V., Kuppusamy, I., Sim, B., Quek, K.F. and Khairul Anuar, A. (2005) Tuberculosis in HIV/AIDS Patients: A Malaysian Experience. The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, 36, 946-953.
[70]  Nissapatorn, V., Kuppusamy, I., Rohela, M., Anuar, A.K. and Fong, M. (2004) Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis in Peninsular Malaysia: Retrospective Study of 195 Cases. The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, 35, 39-45.
[71]  Bates, M., Marais, B.J. and Zumla, A. (2015) Tuberculosis Comorbidity with Communicable and Noncommunicable Diseases. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, 5, a017889.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a017889
[72]  Syed Suleiman, S.A., Ishaq Aweis, D.M., Mohamed, A.J., RazakMuttalif, A. and Moussa, M.A. (2012) Role of Diabetes in the Prognosis and Therapeutic Outcome of Tuberculosis. International Journal of Endocrinology, 2012, Article ID: 645362.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/645362
[73]  Alisjahbana, B., Sahiratmadja, E., Nelwan, E.J., Purwa, A.M., Ahmad, Y., Ottenhoff, T.H., et al. (2007) The Effect of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus on the Presentation and Treatment Response of Pulmonary Tuberculosis. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 45, 428-435.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/519841
[74]  Jeon, C.Y. and Murray, M.B. (2008) Diabetes Mellitus Increases the Risk of Active Tuberculosis: A Systematic Review of 13 Observational Studies. PLoS Medicine, 5, e152.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050152
[75]  Baker, M.A., Harries, A.D., Jeon, C.Y., Hart, J.E., Kapur, A., Lonnroth, K., et al. (2011) The Impact of Diabetes on Tuberculosis Treatment Outcomes: A Systematic Review. BMC Medicine, 9, 81.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-9-81
[76]  Nissapatorn, V., Kuppusamy, I., Jamaiah, I., Fong, M., Rohela, M. and Anuar, A.K. (2005) Tuberculosis in Diabetic Patients: A Clinical Perspective. The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, 36, 213-220.
[77]  Leung, C.C., Lam, T.H., Chan, W.M., Yew, W.W., Ho, K.S., Leung, G.M., et al. (2008) Diabetic Control and Risk of Tuberculosis: A Cohort Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 167, 1486-1494.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn075
[78]  Letchuman, G., Wan Nazaimoon, W., Wan Mohamad, W., Chandran, L., Tee, G., Jamaiyah, H., et al. (2010) Prevalence of Diabetes in the Malaysian National Health Morbidity Survey III 2006. Medical Journal of Malaysia, 65, 180-186.
[79]  Getahun, H., Gunneberg, C., Granich, R. and Nunn, P. (2010) HIV Infection—Associated Tuberculosis: The Epidemiology and the Response. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 50, S201-S207.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/651492
[80]  Mayer, K.H. and Hamilton, C.D. (2010) Synergistic Pandemics: Confronting the Global HIV and Tuberculosis Epidemics. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 50, S67-S70.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/651475
[81]  Suchindran, S., Brouwer, E.S. and Van Rie, A. (2009) Is HIV Infection a Risk Factor for Multi-Drug Resistant Tuberculosis? A Systematic Review. PLoS ONE, 4, e5561.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005561
[82]  Ackah, A.N., Digbeu, H., Daillo, K., Greenberg, A.E., Coulibaly, D., Coulibaly, I.M., et al. (1995) Response to Treatment, Mortality, and CD4 Lymphocyte Counts in HIV-Infected Persons with Tuberculosis in Abidjan, Cote d’Ivoire. The Lancet, 345, 607-610.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(95)90519-7
[83]  Cegielski, J., Kohlmeier, L., Cornoni-Huntley, J., Eds. (1995) Malnutrition and Tuberculosis in a Nationally Representative Cohort of Adults in the United States, 1971-1987. Proceedings of the 44th Annual Meeting, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, San Antonio.
[84]  Gelband, H. (1999) Regimens of Less than Six Months for Treating Tuberculosis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, No. 4, Article No. CD001362.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd001362
[85]  Zhang, T., Du, J., Yin, X., Xue, F., Liu, Y., Li, R., et al. (2015) Adverse Events in Treating Smear-Positive Tuberculosis Patients in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13, 86.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13010086
[86]  Chung-Delgado, K., Revilla-Montag, A., Guillen-Bravo, S., Velez-Segovia, E., Soria-Montoya, A., Nunez-Garbin, A., et al. (2011) Factors Associated with Anti-Tuberculosis Medication Adverse Effects: A Case-Control Study in Lima, Peru. PLoS ONE, 6, e27610.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0027610
[87]  Vilarica, A.S., Diogo, N., André, M. and Pina, J. (2009) Adverse Reactions to Antituberculosis Drugs in In-Hospital Patients: Severity and Risk Factors. Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia, 16, 431-451.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0873-2159(15)30040-4
[88]  Khalili, H., Dashti-Khavidaki, S., Rasoolinejad, M., Rezaie, L. and Etminani, M. (2015) Anti-Tuberculosis Drugs Related Hepatotoxicity, Incidence, Risk Factors, Pattern of Changes in Liver Enzymes and Outcome. DARU Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 17, 163-167.
[89]  Nantha, Y.S. (2012) Influence of Diabetes Mellitus and Risk Factors in Activating Latent Tuberculosis Infection: A Case for Targeted Screening in Malaysia. Medical Journal of Malaysia, 67, 467-472.
[90]  Inghammar, M., Ekbom, A., Engstrom, G., Ljungberg, B., Romanus, V., Lofdahl, C.-G. and Egesten, A. (2010) COPD and the Risk of Tuberculosis—A Population-Based Cohort Study. PLoS ONE, 5, e10138.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010138

Full-Text


Contact Us

service@oalib.com

QQ:3279437679

WhatsApp +8615387084133




©2008-2020 OALib, Inc | Public user content licensed CC-BY 4.0 unless otherwise specified. OALib ISSN Online: 2333-9721 OALib ISSN Print: 2333-9705