This study examines the mechanical and thermal behavior of ten ceramic formulations (C1 to C10) prepared from two types of specimens: Cylindrical Pure clay Specimens (CPC-SP) and Bone Ash Clay Specimens (BAC-SP). The raw materials, sourced from the Missole II clay formation (Douala, Cameroon), were homogenized at room temperature and compacted into cylindrical molds with 10 % water to ensure adequate plasticity and shaping. A total of 100 specimens (five replicates per formulation) were produced under a load of 8.8 N to ensure statistical reliability. Firing experiments, conducted between 750 and 1250？C, showed that BAC-SP specimens retained 3% residual moisture and exhibited superior mechanical performance, with an average Young’s modulus of 6.6 GPa and a fracture stress of 2.56 MPa, compared with 3.56 GPa and 1.66 MPa for CPC-SP. A weight loss on ignition between 1.8 and 2% was recorded in the range of 1120 to 1144？C, while Poisson’s ratio remained constant at 0.5 for both materials. The incorporation of bovine bone ash significantly enhances the strength and thermal stability of ceramics, offering promising opportunities for optimizing firing conditions and extending their use in advanced technological applications.
References
[1]
Roberts, P., Hunt, C., Arroyo-Kalin, M., Evans, D. and Boivin, N. (2017) The Deep Human Prehistory of Global Tropical Forests and Its Relevance for Modern Conservation. Nature Plants, 3, 1‑9. https://doi.org/10.1038/nplants.2017.93
[2]
Logmo, E.O., Ngon, G.F.N., Samba, W., Mbog, M.B. and Etame, J. (2013) Geotechnical, Mineralogical and Chemical Characterization of the Missole II Clayey Materials of Douala Sub-Basin (Cameroon) for Construction Materials. Open Journal of Civil Engineering, 3, 46-53. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojce.2013.32a006
[3]
Penka, J.B., Nana, U.J.M.P., Manjia, M.B., Bomeni, I.Y. and Pettang, C. (2022) Hydrological, Mineralogical and Geotechnical Characterisation of Soils from Douala (Coastal, Cameroon): Potential Used in Road Construction. Heliyon, 8, e11287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11287
[4]
Nguimbous-Kouoh, J.J., Tchutchoua, J., Ngos III, S., Mbarga, T.N. and Manguelle-Dicoum, E. (2018) Hydrocarbon Potential of Two Coastal Basins (Cameroon). International Journal of Geosciences, 9, 131-147. https://doi.org/10.4236/ijg.2018.92009
[5]
Mfayakouo, B.C., Ngaha, P.R.N. and Bitom, D.L. (2021) Age and Paleo-Environmental Evolution of the Douala Basin (Cameroon) during the Cenozoic: Insights from Palynology and Sequence Analysis. Heliyon, 7, e08514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08514
[6]
Mbog, M.B., Ngon Ngon, G.F., Tassongwa, B., Tehna, N., Tedontsah, V.P.L. and Etame, J. (2022) Clay Deposits of Ngoma (Douala Sedimentary Subbasin Cameroon, Central Africa): A Provenance Study. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 15, Article No. 1122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-022-10130-5
[7]
Fugazzotto, M., Mazzoleni, P., Lancellotti, I., Camerini, R., Ferrari, P., Tiné, M., et al. (2023) Industrial Ceramics: From Waste to New Resources for Eco-Sustainable Building Materials. Minerals, 13, Article No. 815. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13060815
[8]
Yanti, E.D. and Pratiwi, I. (2018) Correlation between Thermal Behavior of Clays and Their Chemical and Mineralogical Composition: A Review. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 118, Article ID: 012078. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/118/1/012078
[9]
Geng, J. and Sun, Q. (2018) Effects of High Temperature Treatment on Physical-Thermal Properties of Clay. Thermochimica Acta, 666, 148-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2018.06.018
[10]
Bukalo, N.N., Ekosse, G.-I., Odiyo, J. and Ogola, J. (2020) Geochemistry and Possible Industrial Applications of Cretaceous-Tertiary Kaolins of the Douala Sub-Basin, Cameroon. Periodico di Mineralogia, 89, 225-242.
[11]
Bayiga, E., Ntamak-Nida, M., Etame, J., et al. () Trace Elements Geo-Chemistry of Clay Deposits of Missole II from the Douala Sub-Basin in Cameroon (Central Africa): A Provenance Study. Sciences, Technologie & Développement, 13, 20-35.
[12]
Sobdjou, C.K., Mfayakouo, B.C., Ngueutchoua, G., Kenfack, R.G.N. and Ngos, S. (2023) Palaeoenvironment of the Albian-Cenomanian Mundeck Formation in the Douala Basin (SW, Cameroon): Evidence from Facies Analysis and Geochemistry. Geological Journal, 58, 2057-2077. https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.4710
[13]
Njoh, O.A. and Sama, N. (2022) Palynostratigraphy of the Paleocene-Eocene Shallow Marine Petroleum Source Rock Sections, Outcropping in Missole, Nkapa Formation, Douala/Kribi-Campo Basin, Cameroon.
[14]
Bodvarson, G.S., Pruess, K. and Lippmann, M.J. (2023) Numerical Evaluation of Geothermal Systems. Brazilian Journal of Geophysics, 5, 311‑318. https://doi.org/10.22564/brjg.v5i2.2249
[15]
Nugraha, R., O’Sullivan, J., O’Sullivan, M. and Abdurachman, F. (2022) Geothermal Modelling: Industry Standard Practices. 47th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford, 7-9 February 2022, 1-12. https://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/pdf/IGAstandard/SGW/2022/Nugraha.pdf
[16]
Waleed, M. and Alshawmar, F. (2025) Enhancing Mechanical Properties of Low Plasticity Soil through Coal and Silica Fume Stabilization. Scientific Reports, 15, Article No. 9990. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-94149-0
[17]
Moreno-Maroto, J.M. and Alonso-Azcárate, J. (2018) What Is Clay? A New Definition of “Clay” Based on Plasticity and Its Impact on the Most Widespread Soil Classification Systems. Applied Clay Science, 161, 57-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2018.04.011
[18]
Yang, M., Chen, L., Wang, J., Msigwa, G., Osman, A.I., Fawzy, S., et al. (2022) Circular Economy Strategies for Combating Climate Change and Other Environmental Issues. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 21, 55-80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01499-6
[19]
Luo, L., Wang, J., Lv, J., Liu, Z., Sun, T., Yang, Y., et al. (2023) Carbon Sequestration Strategies in Soil Using Biochar: Advances, Challenges, and Opportunities. Environmental Science & Technology, 57, 11357-11372. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c02620
[20]
Bessong, M., Bomolomo, M.V., Mbesse, C.O., Mbassa, B.J., Mioumndé, A.P., Hell, J.V., et al. (2022) The Garoua Formation of the Upper Benue Trough (Cameroon), as a Potential Lateral Extension of the Bima Formation (Nigeria): Evidence from Geomorphology, Facies Analysis, Petrology and Geochemistry. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 15, Article No. 915. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-022-10078-6
[21]
Peña-Monné, J.L., Sampietro-Vattuone, M.M., Báez, W.A., García-Giménez, R., Stábile, F.M., Martínez Stagnaro, S.Y., et al. (2021) Sandstone Weathering Processes in the Painted Rock Shelters of Cerro Colorado (Córdoba, Argentina). Geoarchaeology, 37, 332-349. https://doi.org/10.1002/gea.21890
[22]
Kobawila, N.D., Elenga, H. and Ngatse, L.R. (2021) Miocene Foraminifera Biostratigraphy and Interpretation North Deep Sea Block of the Congolese Atlantic Basin. Open Journal of Geology, 11, 253-274. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2021.117015
[23]
Eshraghi, A. and Zare, S. (2015) Face Stability Evaluation of a TBM-Driven Tunnel in Heterogeneous Soil Using a Probabilistic Approach. International Journal of Geomechanics, 15, Article 04014095. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)gm.1943-5622.0000452
[24]
Chen, X., Zhang, K. and Wang, W. (2023) Seismic Stability Analysis of Tunnel Faces in Heterogeneous and Anisotropic Soils Using Modified Pseudodynamic Method. Sustainability, 15, Article 11083. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411083
[25]
Nousheen, R., Hashmi, I., Rittschof, D. and Capper, A. (2022) Comprehensive Analysis of Spatial Distribution of Microplastics in Rawal Lake, Pakistan Using Trawl Net and Sieve Sampling Methods. Chemosphere, 308, Article ID: 136111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136111
[26]
Soinne, H., Keskinen, R., Tähtikarhu, M., Kuva, J. and Hyväluoma, J. (2023) Effects of Organic Carbon and Clay Contents on Structure-Related Properties of Arable Soils with High Clay Content. European Journal of Soil Science, 74, e13424. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.13424
[27]
Carrasco, J.A., Oestreicher, V., Silva, A.S. and Abellán, G. (2023) Magnetism in Two-Dimensional Layered Double Hydroxides. Applied Clay Science, 243, Article ID: 107073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2023.107073
[28]
Zakhnini, A., Kulenkampff, J., Sauerzapf, S., Pietrzyk, U. and Lippmann-Pipke, J. (2013) Monte Carlo Simulations of GeoPET Experiments: 3D Images of Tracer Distributions (18F, 124I and 58Co) in Opalinus Clay, Anhydrite and Quartz. Computers & Geosciences, 57, 183-196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2013.03.023
[29]
Dhar, M., Muzenda, T.R., Demeusy, Y., Koutsouradi, A., Jensen, P.A., Labbez, C., et al. (2025) Evaluation of Characterization Techniques for Selecting Kaolinitic Clays as Supplementary Cementitious Materials: An Interlaboratory Study. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 108, e20512. https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.20512
[30]
Frederickx, L. (2020) An Advanced Mineralogical Study of the Clay Mineral Fraction of the Boom Clay.
[31]
Kang, Y., et al. (2024) Detrital and Authigenic Clay Minerals in Shales: A Review on Their Identification and Applications. Heliyon, 10, e39239.
[32]
Harvey, C.C. (1995) Kaolin Resources of the United States and Their Industrial Utilization. In Proceedings of the 1993 UN Workshop for Industrial Minerals Development in Asia and the Pacific, 8, 252-265.
[33]
Pruett, R.J. (2016) Kaolin Deposits and Their Uses: Northern Brazil and Georgia, Usa. Applied Clay Science, 131, 3-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2016.01.048
[34]
Buyondo, K.A., Kasedde, H. and Kirabira, J.B. (2022) A Comprehensive Review on Kaolin as Pigment for Paint and Coating: Recent Trends of Chemical-Based Paints, Their Environmental Impacts and Regulation. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 6, Article ID: 100244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2022.100244
[35]
Oyebanjo, O., Ekosse, G. and Odiyo, J. (2020) Physico-Chemical, Mineralogical, and Chemical Characterisation of Cretaceous-Paleogene/Neogene Kaolins within Eastern Dahomey and Niger Delta Basins from Nigeria: Possible Industrial Applications. Minerals, 10, Article No. 670. https://doi.org/10.3390/min10080670
[36]
El Hady, A.M.L., Baioumy, H., Dekayir, A., Sabbar, M.S., Abdeina, E.H., El Ghastalany, R., et al. (2024) Mineralogy, Geochemistry, Origin, and Potential Industrial Applications of Kaolin Deposit from Hassi Abyad, Mauritania. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 214, Article ID: 105243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2024.105243
[37]
Mesele, A., Gidey, T., Weldemaryam, T., Mulualem, W., Mekuria, T., Ali, Y., et al. (2021) Mineralogical and Geochemical Characterisation of Kaolin Deposit from Debre Tabor Area Northwestern, Ethiopia. Applied Earth Science, 130, 42-56. https://doi.org/10.1080/25726838.2021.1872820
[38]
Bartley, P.C., Fonteno, W.C. and Jackson, B.E. (2022) A Review and Analysis of Horticultural Substrate Characterization by Sieve Analysis. HortScience, 57, 715-725. https://doi.org/10.21273/hortsci16583-22
[39]
Manuwa, S.I., Sedara, A.M. and Tola, F.A. (2020) Design, Fabrication and Performance Evaluation of Moringa (Oleifera) Dried Leaves Pulverizer. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 2, Article ID: 100034. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2020.100034
[40]
Stempkowska, A., Gawenda, T., Chajec, A. and Sadowski, Ł. (2022) Effect of Granite Powder Grain Size and Grinding Time of the Properties of Cementitious Composites. Materials, 15, Article No. 8837. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15248837
[41]
Červenka, L., Frühbauerová, M., Palarčík, J., Muriqi, S. and Velichová, H. (2022) The Effect of Vibratory Grinding Time on Moisture Sorption, Particle Size Distribution, and Phenolic Bioaccessibility of Carob Powder. Molecules, 27, Article No. 7689. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27227689
[42]
Bianchini, M., Wang, J., Clément, R.J., Ouyang, B., Xiao, P., Kitchaev, D., et al. (2020) The Interplay between Thermodynamics and Kinetics in the Solid-State Synthesis of Layered Oxides. Nature Materials, 19, 1088-1095. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-020-0688-6
[43]
Sahoo, D. and Naik, R. (2022) GSST Phase Change Materials and Its Utilization in Optoelectronic Devices: A Review. Materials Research Bulletin, 148, Article ID: 111679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.materresbull.2021.111679
[44]
Fultz, B. (2020) Phase Transitions in Materials. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108641449
[45]
Vaßen, R., Mack, D.E., Tandler, M., Sohn, Y.J., Sebold, D. and Guillon, O. (2020) Unique Performance of Thermal Barrier Coatings Made of Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia at Extreme Temperatures (> 1500 ˚C). Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 104, 463-471. https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.17452
[46]
Song, X., Ding, Y., Zhang, J., Jiang, C., Liu, Z., Lin, C., et al. (2023) Thermophysical and Mechanical Properties of Cubic, Tetragonal and Monoclinic ZrO2. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 23, 648-655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.01.040
[47]
Zhou, D., Mack, D.E., Bakan, E., Mauer, G., Sebold, D., Guillon, O., et al. (2019) Thermal Cycling Performances of Multilayered Yttria-stabilized Zirconia/Gadolinium Zirconate Thermal Barrier Coatings. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 103, 2048-2061. https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.16862
[48]
Luo, Q., Fang, X., Liu, L., Yang, C. and Sun, Y. (2020) Automated Visual Defect Detection for Flat Steel Surface: A Survey. IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, 69, 626-644. https://doi.org/10.1109/tim.2019.2963555
[49]
Zhang, C., Xue, L., Pestka, S.A., Ranaiefar, M., Atli, K.C., Honarmandi, P., et al. (2022) Processing Parameters and Martensitic Phase Transformation Relationships in near Defect-Free Additively Manufactured NiTiHf High Temperature Shape Memory Alloys. Materials & Design, 222, Article ID: 110988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2022.110988
[50]
Phuhongsung, P., Zhang, M., Devahastin, S. and Mujumdar, A.S. (2022) Defects in 3D/4D Food Printing and Their Possible Solutions: A Comprehensive Review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 21, 3455-3479. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12984
[51]
Dericquebourg, P., Person, A., Ségalen, L., Pickford, M., Senut, B. and Fagel, N. (2019) Bone Diagenesis and Origin of Calcium Phosphate Nodules from a Hominid Site in the Lukeino Formation (Tugen Hills, Kenya). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 536, Article ID: 109377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.109377
[52]
Abdul Rahman, F.S., Abdullah, A.M., Radhi, A., Shahidan, W.N.S. and Abdullah, J.Y. (2023) Physicochemical Characterization of Thermally Processed Goose Bone Ash for Bone Regeneration. Journal of Functional Biomaterials, 14, Article No. 351. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb14070351
[53]
Bih, N.L., Mahamat, A.A., Chinweze, C., Ayeni, O., Bidossèssi, H.J., Onwualu, P.A., et al. (2022) The Effect of Bone Ash on the Physio-Chemical and Mechanical Properties of Clay Ceramic Bricks. Buildings, 12, Article No. 336. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12030336
[54]
Logeshwaran, A., Elsen, R. and Nayak, S. (2023) Mechanical and Biological Characteristics of 3D Fabricated Clay Mineral and Bioceramic Composite Scaffold for Bone Tissue Applications. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, 138, Article ID: 105633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2022.105633
[55]
Bhuiya, A.W., Hu, M., Sankar, K., Keane, P.F., Ribero, D. and Kriven, W.M. (2021) Bone Ash Reinforced Geopolymer Composites. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 104, 2767-2779. https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.17621
[56]
Tardio-Brise, L. (2022) Complete Guide to Paper Clay: Mixing Recipes; Building, Finishing and Firing; 10 Practice Projects. Rowman & Littlefield.
[57]
Liu, M., et al. (2021) Walnut Fruit Processing Equipment: Academic Insights and Perspectives. Food Engineering Reviews, 13, 822-857.
[58]
Alneasan, M., Alzo’ubi, A.K., Behnia, M. and Mughieda, O. (2022) Experimental Observations on the Effect of Thermal Treatment on the Crack Speed and Mode I and II Fracture Toughness in Brittle and Ductile Rocks. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, 121, Article ID: 103525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tafmec.2022.103525
[59]
Zhang, Y., Wang, K., Wang, B. and Zhang, C. (2020) Thermal Shock Resistance of Porous Ceramic Foams with Temperature-Dependent Material Properties. Ceramics International, 46, 1503-1511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.09.117
[60]
Shu, X., Xu, Y., Li, Y., Yan, W., Wang, Q. and Liang, X. (2023) Preparation of Closed-Pore MgO-MgFe2O4 Aggregates with Low Thermal Conductivity and High Mechanical Properties. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 43, 7178-7188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2023.06.075
[61]
Pakseresht, A., Sharifianjazi, F., Esmaeilkhanian, A., Bazli, L., Reisi Nafchi, M., Bazli, M., et al. (2022) Failure Mechanisms and Structure Tailoring of YSZ and New Candidates for Thermal Barrier Coatings: A Systematic Review. Materials & Design, 222, Article ID: 111044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2022.111044
[62]
Zhao, H., Ma, Y., Zhang, J., Hu, Z., Li, H., Wang, Y., et al. (2022) Effect of Clay Content on Shrinkage of Cementitious Materials. Construction and Building Materials, 322, Article ID: 125959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125959
[63]
Pokharel, B. and Siddiqua, S. (2021) Understanding the Effect of Pulp Mill Fly Ash on Strength, Compressibility, and Microstructure of Organic Soil. International Journal of Geomechanics, 21, Article ID: 04021209. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)gm.1943-5622.0002172
[64]
Ko, E., Lim, D., Kim, S., Youk, J. and Jeon, H. (2023) Bending Strength Evaluation of Three-Dimensional Double Rachel Geosynthetic Cementitious Composite Mat (GCCM) under Environmental Conditions. Applied Sciences, 13, Article No. 11271. https://doi.org/10.3390/app132011271
[65]
Zhang, Z., Zhao, Y. and Liu, K. (2024) The Effect of High-Energy Ball Milling on Enhancing the Mechanical Properties, Light Transmittance, and Thermal Shock Resistance of Bone China Porcelain. Ceramics International, 50, 53552-53561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2024.10.204
[66]
Ibrahim, J.E.F.M., Tihtih, M., Kurovics, E., Gömze, L.A. and Kocserha, I. (2022) Innovative Glass-Ceramic Foams Prepared by Alkali Activation and Reactive Sintering of Clay Containing Zeolite (Zeolite-Poor Rock) and Sawdust for Thermal Insulation. Journal of Building Engineering, 59, Article ID: 105160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105160
[67]
Li, F., Yin, D., Zhu, C., Wang, F., Jiang, N. and Zhang, Z. (2021) Effects of Kaolin Addition on Mechanical Properties for Cemented Coal Gangue-Fly Ash Backfill under Uniaxial Loading. Energies, 14, Article No. 3693. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14123693
[68]
Hill, C., Altgen, M. and Rautkari, L. (2021) Thermal Modification of Wood—A Review: Chemical Changes and Hygroscopicity. Journal of Materials Science, 56, 6581-6614. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-020-05722-z
[69]
Singla, M. and Sit, N. (2021) Application of Ultrasound in Combination with Other Technologies in Food Processing: A Review. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 73, Article ID: 105506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2021.105506
[70]
Li, X., Lin, Y., Liu, M., Meng, L. and Li, C. (2022) A Review of Research and Application of Polylactic Acid Composites. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 140, e53477. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.53477
[71]
Wang, W., Liu, H., Deng, R. and Wang, Y. (2023) Active Stability Analysis of 3D Tunnel Face in Nonhomogeneous and Anisotropic Soils. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 41, 3013-3033. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-023-02442-4
[72]
Alexander Tangwa, N., Oliver Anoh, N. and Yinkfu Njamnsi, N. (2022) Geotechnical Properties and Geochemical Composition of Mudrock from the Douala Sub Basin, Cameroon: Implication for Industrial Potentials. Journal of Geosciences and Geomatics, 10, 162-171. https://doi.org/10.12691/jgg-10-3-5
[73]
Oumar, K.O., Gilbert François, N.N., Bertrand, M.M., Nathanael, T., Constantin, B.E., Simon, M.J., et al. (2022) Mineralogical, Geochemical Characterization and Physicochemical Properties of Kaolinitic Clays of the Eastern Part of the Douala Sub-Basin, Cameroon, Central Africa. Applied Sciences, 12, Article No. 9143. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12189143
