Hidden hunger is also known as micronutrient deficiency, a form of malnutrition that occurs when individuals consume an inadequate amount of essential vitamins and minerals. In this review paper, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of hidden hunger, including its causes, consequences, and interventions, as well as identify research gaps and future directions. We hope to contribute to the development of effective strategies for addressing this problem in South Kivu Province, Eastern DRC. In South Kivu Province, the focus has historically been on addressing undernutrition, which is characterized by a lack of sufficient calories. This focus on undernutrition has led to successful programs and interventions such as food supplementation and fortification, which have helped to reduce the prevalence of undernutrition. However, these programs have not necessarily addressed hidden hunger, which requires a different approach focused on increasing access to nutrient-rich foods and promoting healthy dietary habits. Addressing hidden hunger requires a multifaceted approach that includes improving access to nutritious foods, promoting healthy dietary habits, and increasing awareness of the importance of micronutrients for health. The prevalence of hidden hunger highlights the need for targeted interventions to improve nutrition and increase access to nutritious foods, particularly in vulnerable populations. Hidden hunger can affect populations, and addressing it requires a comprehensive approach that takes into account factors such as food access, health status, socioeconomic conditions, and the unique nutritional needs and challenges faced by each population. While each intervention (supplementation or Biofortification) has its strengths and limitations, a combination of approaches that address the underlying causes of hidden hunger can be effective in reducing micronutrient deficiencies and improving nutritional status. Additionally, interventions that are sustainable and integrated into existing systems and programs can have a more lasting impact on addressing hidden hunger. Addressing the gaps in our knowledge on hidden hunger will require involving researchers, policymakers, and community stakeholders working together to develop and implement effective strategies to improve nutrition and health outcomes. It is essential to prioritize and invest in interventions aimed at addressing hidden hunger, including food-based approaches, fortification, supplementation, and biofortification. Moreover, research and monitoring efforts should be enhanced to improve our
References
[1]
Bhandari, S. and Banjara, M.R. (2015) Micronutrients Deficiency, a Hidden Hunger in Nepal: Prevalence, Causes, Consequences, and Solutions. International Scholarly Research Notices, 2015, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/276469
[2]
Thankachan, P., Selvam, S., Surendran, D., Chellan, S., Pauline, M., Abrams, S.A., etal. (2012) Efficacy of a Multi Micronutrient-Fortified Drink in Improving Iron and Micronutrient Status among Schoolchildren with Low Iron Stores in India: A Randomised, Double-Masked Placebo-Controlled Trial. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 67, 36-41. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2012.188
[3]
Thapa, S. (2014) High and Equitable Coverage of Vitamin A Supplementation Program in Nepal. Journal of Community Medicine and Health Education, 4, 272-278.
[4]
Qasemzadeh, M.J., Fathi, M., Tashvighi, M., Gharehbeglou, M., Yadollah-Damavandi, S., Parsa, Y., et al. (2014) The Effect of Adjuvant Zinc Therapy on Recovery from Pneumonia in Hospitalized Children: A Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Trial. Scientifica, 2014, 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/694193
[5]
Gorstein, J., Sullivan, K.M., Parvanta, I. and Begin, F. (2007) Indicators and Methods for Cross-Sectional Surveys of Vitamin and Mineral Status of Populations.
[6]
WHO (2014) Xerophthalmia and Night Blindness for the Assessment of Clinical Vitamin A Deficiency in Individuals and Populations. World Health Organization.
[7]
Zimmermann, M.B. and Andersson, M. (2012) Update on Iodine Status Worldwide. Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes & Obesity, 19, 382-387. https://doi.org/10.1097/med.0b013e328357271a
[8]
Lowe, N.M. (2021) The Global Challenge of Hidden Hunger: Perspectives from the Field. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 80, 283-289. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0029665121000902
[9]
Gödecke, T., Stein, A.J. and Qaim, M. (2018) The Global Burden of Chronic and Hidden Hunger: Trends and Determinants. Global Food Security, 17, 21-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2018.03.004
[10]
Eggersdorfer, M. and Bird, J.K. (2016) How to Achieve Transparency in Public-Private Partnerships Engaged in Hunger and Malnutrition Reduction. In: World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics, S. Karger AG, 224-232. https://doi.org/10.1159/000442109
[11]
Misner, B. (2006) Food Alone May Not Provide Sufficient Micronutrients for Preventing Deficiency. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 3, Article 51. https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-3-1-51
[12]
Onyango, A.W., Borghi, E., de Onis, M., Casanovas, M.D.C. and Garza, C. (2013) Complementary Feeding and Attained Linear Growth among 6–23-Month-Old Children. Public Health Nutrition, 17, 1975-1983. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1368980013002401
[13]
Issaka, A.I., Agho, K.E., N. Page, A., L. Burns, P., Stevens, G.J. and Dibley, M.J. (2015) Comparisons of Complementary Feeding Indicators among Children Aged 6–23 Months in Anglophone and Francophone West African Countries. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 11, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12196
[14]
du Plessis, L. (2013) Infant and Young Child Feeding in South Africa: Stop the Crying, Beloved Country. South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 26, 4-5. https://doi.org/10.1080/16070658.2013.11734433
[15]
De Irala-Estévez, J., Groth, M., Johansson, L., Oltersdorf, U., Prättälä, R. and Martínez-González, M. (2000) A Systematic Review of Socio-Economic Differences in Food Habits in Europe: Consumption of Fruit and Vegetables. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 54, 706-714. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601080
[16]
James, W.P.T., Nelson, M., Ralph, A. and Leather, S. (1997) Socioeconomic Determinants of Health: The Contribution of Nutrition to Inequalities in Health. British Medical Journal, 314, 1545-1545. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.314.7093.1545
[17]
Black, R.E., Victora, C.G., Walker, S.P., Bhutta, Z.A., Christian, P., de Onis, M., et al. (2013) Maternal and Child Undernutrition and Overweight in Low-Income and Middle-Income Countries. The Lancet, 382, 427-451. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60937-x
[18]
Manjeru, P., Van Biljon, A. and Labuschagne, M. (2017) The Development and Release of Maize Fortified with Provitamin a Carotenoids in Developing Countries. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 59, 1284-1293. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2017.1402751
[19]
Sivaprasad, M., Shalini, T., Reddy, P.Y., Seshacharyulu, M., Madhavi, G., Kumar, B.N., et al. (2019) Prevalence of Vitamin Deficiencies in an Apparently Healthy Urban Adult Population: Assessed by Subclinical Status and Dietary Intakes. Nutrition, 63, 106-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2019.01.017
[20]
Das, P.K., Bhavani, R.V. and Swaminathan, M.S. (2014) A Farming System Model to Leverage Agriculture for Nutritional Outcomes. Agricultural Research, 3, 193-203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40003-014-0119-5
[21]
Crush, J., Frayne, B. and McLachlan, M. (2011) Rapid Urbanization and the Nutrition Transition in Southern Africa.
[22]
Tull, K. (2018) Urban Food Systems and Nutrition. Institute of Development Studies.
[23]
Baldassarre, M.E., Panza, R., Farella, I., Posa, D., Capozza, M., Mauro, A.D., et al. (2020) Vegetarian and Vegan Weaning of the Infant: How Common and How Evidence-Based? A Population-Based Survey and Narrative Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, Article 4835. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134835
[24]
Agnoli, C., Baroni, L., Bertini, I., Ciappellano, S., Fabbri, A., Papa, M., et al. (2017) Position Paper on Vegetarian Diets from the Working Group of the Italian Society of Human Nutrition. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, 27, 1037-1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.numecd.2017.10.020
[25]
Lemoine, A., Giabicani, E., Lockhart, V., Grimprel, E. and Tounian, P. (2020) Case Report of Nutritional Rickets in an Infant Following a Vegan Diet. Archives de Pédiatrie, 27, 219-222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcped.2020.03.008
[26]
Biesalski, H.K. (2016) The 1,000-Day Window and Cognitive Development. In: World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics, S. Karger AG, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1159/000442377
[27]
Black, R.E., Allen, L.H., Bhutta, Z.A., Caulfield, L.E., de Onis, M., Ezzati, M., et al. (2008) Maternal and Child Undernutrition: Global and Regional Exposures and Health Consequences. The Lancet, 371, 243-260. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(07)61690-0
[28]
Stein, A.J. and Qaim, M. (2007) The Human and Economic Cost of Hidden Hunger. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 28, 125-134. https://doi.org/10.1177/156482650702800201
[29]
Darnton-Hill, I., Webb, P., Harvey, P.W., Hunt, J.M., Dalmiya, N., Chopra, M., et al. (2005) Micronutrient Deficiencies and Gender: Social and Economic Costs. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 81, 1198S-1205S. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/81.5.1198
[30]
Stein, N. (2014) Public Health Nutrition. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
[31]
Deitchler, M., Mason, J., Mathys, E., Winichagoon, P. and Tuazon, M.A. (2004) Lessons from Successful Micronutrient Programs Part I: Program Initiation. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 25, 5-29. https://doi.org/10.1177/156482650402500102
[32]
Rauniyar, G. and Kanbur, R. (2010) Inclusive Growth and Inclusive Development: A Review and Synthesis of Asian Development Bank Literature. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 15, 455-469. https://doi.org/10.1080/13547860.2010.517680
[33]
Ubesie, A.C., Ibeziako, N.S., Ndiokwelu, C.I., Uzoka, C.M. and Nwafor, C.A. (2012) Under-Five Protein Energy Malnutrition Admitted at the University of in Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Enugu: A 10 Year Retrospective Review. Nutrition Journal, 11, Article No. 43. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2891-11-43
[34]
De Moura, F.F., Palmer, A.C., Finkelstein, J.L., Haas, J.D., Murray-Kolb, L.E., Wenger, M.J., et al. (2014) Are Biofortified Staple Food Crops Improving Vitamin A and Iron Status in Women and Children? New Evidence from Efficacy Trials. Advances in Nutrition, 5, 568-570. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.114.006627
[35]
Thompson, B. and Amoroso, L. (2011) Combating Micronutrient Deficiencies: Food-Based Approaches. Food and Agriculture Organization.
[36]
Kennedy, E.T. and Bouis, H.E. (1993) Linkages between Agriculture and Nutrition: Implications for Policy and Research. International Food Policy Research Institute.
[37]
Min, J., Zhao, Y., Slivka, L. and Wang, Y. (2017) Double Burden of Diseases Worldwide: Coexistence of Undernutrition and Overnutrition-Related Non-Communicable Chronic Diseases. Obesity Reviews, 19, 49-61. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12605
[38]
Mohan, V., Ranjani, H., Mehreen, T., Pradeepa, R., Anjana, R., Garg, R., et al. (2016) Epidemiology of Childhood Overweight & Obesity in India: A Systematic Review. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 143, 160-174. https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-5916.180203
[39]
Scott, S.P., Wenger, M.J., Murray-Kolb, L.E., Udipi, S.A., Ghugre, P.S., Boy, E., et al. (2012) Relations between Iron Status and Cognitive Measures in Indian Adolescents. Wiley.
[40]
Black, R.E. and Fischer Walker, C. (2012) Role of Zinc in Child Health and Survival. In: Nestlé Nutrition Institute Workshop Series, S. Karger AG, 37-42. https://doi.org/10.1159/000337393
[41]
Black, R.E. (1998) Therapeutic and Preventive Effects of Zinc on Serious Childhood Infectious Diseases in Developing Countries. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 68, 476S-479S. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/68.2.476s
[42]
Penny, M.E. (2013) Zinc Supplementation in Public Health. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 62, 31-42. https://doi.org/10.1159/000348263
[43]
Ngozi, U.F. (2013) The Role of Biofortification in the Reduction of Micronutrient Food Insecurity in Developing Countries. African Journal of Biotechnology, 12, Article No. 37.
[44]
Uchendu, F.N. and Tola, A. (2011) The Silent and Neglected Crisis of Malnutrition: Scientific Evidence for Taking Decisive Action. Global Journal of Health Science, 3, 193-202. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v3n1193
[45]
Muthayya, S., Rah, J.H., Sugimoto, J.D., Roos, F.F., Kraemer, K. and Black, R.E. (2013) The Global Hidden Hunger Indices and Maps: An Advocacy Tool for Action. PLOS ONE, 8, e67860. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0067860
[46]
Biesalski, H.K., Black, R.E. and Koletzko, B. (2016) Hidden Hunger: Malnutrition and the First 1,000 Days of Life: Causes, Consequences and Solutions, vol. 115. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers.
[47]
Amoroso, L. (2018) Post-2015 Agenda and Sustainable Development Goals: Where Are We Now? Global Opportunities to Address Malnutrition in All Its Forms, Including Hidden Hunger. In: World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics, S. Karger AG, 45-56. https://doi.org/10.1159/000484334
[48]
Redón Lago, A. (2021) Hidden Hunger in the Current World: Causes, Consequences and Solutions to a Global Public Health Challenge and a Particular Look at Spain.
[49]
Evans, A., Banks, K., Jennings, R., Nehme, E., Nemec, C., Sharma, S., et al. (2015) Increasing Access to Healthful Foods: A Qualitative Study with Residents of Low-Income Communities. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 12, S5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-12-s1-s5
[50]
Pereira, L.J. and van der Bilt, A. (2016) The Influence of Oral Processing, Food Perception and Social Aspects on Food Consumption: A Review. Journal of Oral Rehabilitation, 43, 630-648. https://doi.org/10.1111/joor.12395
[51]
Holst, B. and Williamson, G. (2008) Nutrients and Phytochemicals: From Bioavailability to Bio-Efficacy beyond Antioxidants. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 19, 73-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2008.03.003
[52]
Zingel, W., Keck, M., Etzold, B. and Bohle, H. (2011) Urban Food Security and Health Status of the Poor in Dhaka, Bangladesh. In: Contributions to Statistics, Physica-Verlag HD, 301-319. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7908-2733-0_19
[53]
Steyn, N., Nel, J., Nantel, G., Kennedy, G. and Labadarios, D. (2006) Food Variety and Dietary Diversity Scores in Children: Are They Good Indicators of Dietary Adequacy? Public Health Nutrition, 9, 644-650. https://doi.org/10.1079/phn2005912
[54]
Ruel, M.T. (2003) Is Dietary Diversity an Indicator of Food Security or Dietary Quality? A Review of Measurement Issues and Research Needs. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 24, 231-232. https://doi.org/10.1177/156482650302400217
[55]
Tontisirin, K., Nantel, G. and Bhattacharjee, L. (2002) Food-Based Strategies to Meet the Challenges of Micronutrient Malnutrition in the Developing World. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 61, 243-250. https://doi.org/10.1079/pns2002155
[56]
Frison, E., Smith, I.F., Cherfas, J., Eyzaguirre, P. and Johns, T. (2005) Using Biodiversity for Food, Dietary Diversity, Better Nutrition and Health. South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 18, 112-114. https://doi.org/10.1080/16070658.2005.11734050
[57]
Abeshu, M.A., Lelisa, A. and Geleta, B. (2016) Complementary Feeding: Review of Recommendations, Feeding Practices, and Adequacy of Homemade Complementary Food Preparations in Developing Countries—Lessons from Ethiopia. Frontiers in Nutrition, 3, Article 41. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2016.00041
[58]
Fanzo, J. (2014) Strengthening the Engagement of Food and Health Systems to Improve Nutrition Security: Synthesis and Overview of Approaches to Address Malnutrition. Global Food Security, 3, 183-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2014.09.001
[59]
Zehnder, J., Katzung, S.M. and Trevor, A. (2009) Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. McGraw-Hill Medical.
[60]
Urbano, G., López-Jurado, M., Aranda, P., Vidal-Valverde, C., Tenorio, E. and Porres, J. (2000) The Role of Phytic Acid in Legumes: Antinutrient or Beneficial Function? Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry, 56, 283-294. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03179796
[61]
Nissar, J., Ahad, T., Naik, H.R. and Hussain, S.Z. (2017) A Review Phytic Acid: As Antinutrient or Nutraceutical. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 6, 1554-1560.
[62]
Sandberg, A. (2002) Bioavailability of Minerals in Legumes. British Journal of Nutrition, 88, 281-285. https://doi.org/10.1079/bjn/2002718
[63]
Millward, D.J. (2017) Nutrition, Infection and Stunting: The Roles of Deficiencies of Individual Nutrients and Foods, and of Inflammation, as Determinants of Reduced Linear Growth of Children. Nutrition Research Reviews, 30, 50-72. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954422416000238
[64]
Gasaly, N., de Vos, P. and Hermoso, M.A. (2021) Impact of Bacterial Metabolites on Gut Barrier Function and Host Immunity: A Focus on Bacterial Metabolism and Its Relevance for Intestinal Inflammation. Frontiers in Immunology, 12, Article 658354. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.658354
[65]
Stefanelli, G., Viscido, A., Longo, S., Magistroni, M. and Latella, G. (2020) Persistent Iron Deficiency Anemia in Patients with Celiac Disease Despite a Gluten-Free Diet. Nutrients, 12, Article 2176. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12082176
[66]
Thakur, P. and Kumar, K. (2019) Nutritional Importance and Processing Aspects of Pseudo-Cereals. Journal of Agricultural Engineering and Food Technology, 6, 155-160.
[67]
Thakur, N.S. and Kumar, P. (2017) Anti-Nutritional Factors, Their Adverse Effects and Need for Adequate Processing to Reduce Them in Food. AgricINTERNATIONAL, 4, 56-60. https://doi.org/10.5958/2454-8634.2017.00013.4
[68]
Zijp, I.M., Korver, O. and Tijburg, L.B.M. (2000) Effect of Tea and Other Dietary Factors on Iron Absorption. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 40, 371-398. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408690091189194
[69]
Delimont, N.M., Haub, M.D. and Lindshield, B.L. (2017) The Impact of Tannin Consumption on Iron Bioavailability and Status: A Narrative Review. Current Developments in Nutrition, 1, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3945/cdn.116.000042
[70]
Singh, A., Dikshit, H.K., Ramawat, N. and Kumar, S. (2022) Novel Bioactive Compounds for Enhancing Micronutrient Bioavailability. In: Bioactive Components, Springer, 481-488. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-2366-1_27
[71]
Katona, P. and Katona-Apte, J. (2008) The Interaction between Nutrition and Infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 46, 1582-1588. https://doi.org/10.1086/587658
[72]
Martin, C. and Li, J. (2017) Medicine Is Not Health Care, Food Is Health Care: Plant Metabolic Engineering, Diet and Human Health. New Phytologist, 216, 699-719. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.14730
[73]
Bezabih, A., Wereta, M., Kahsay, Z., Getahun, Z. and Bazzano, A. (2018) Demand and Supply Side Barriers That Limit the Uptake of Nutrition Services among Pregnant Women from Rural Ethiopia: An Exploratory Qualitative Study. Nutrients, 10, Article 1687. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10111687
[74]
McKay, S., Gaudier, E., Campbell, D.I., Prentice, A.M. and Albers, R. (2010) Environmental Enteropathy: New Targets for Nutritional Interventions. International Health, 2, 172-180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inhe.2010.07.006
[75]
Bhutta, Z.A. (2006) Effect of Infections and Environmental Factors on Growth and Nutritional Status in Developing Countries. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 43, S13-S21. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.mpg.0000255846.77034.ed
[76]
Bhutta, Z.A., Ghishan, F., Lindley, K., Memon, I.A., Mittal, S. and Rhoads, J.M. (2004) Persistent and Chronic Diarrhea and Malabsorption: Working Group Report of the Second World Congress of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 39, S711-S716. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005176-200406002-00019
[77]
Biesalski, H.K. (2013) First International Conference on Hidden Hunger, Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany March 6-9, 2013. Food Security, 5, 457-473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-013-0267-7
[78]
Chakona, G. and Shackleton, C. (2019) Food Taboos and Cultural Beliefs Influence Food Choice and Dietary Preferences among Pregnant Women in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Nutrients, 11, Article 2668. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11112668
[79]
Chakona, G. (2020) Social Circumstances and Cultural Beliefs Influence Maternal Nutrition, Breastfeeding and Child Feeding Practices in South Africa. Nutrition Journal, 19, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-020-00566-4
[80]
Kramer, C.V. and Allen, S. (2015) Malnutrition in Developing Countries. Paediatricsand Child Health, 25, 422-427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paed.2015.04.002
[81]
Yadav, S.S., Hegde, V.S., Habibi, A.B., et al. (2019) Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security. In: Food Security and Climate Change, Wiley.
[82]
Dwivedi, S., Sahrawat, K., Upadhyaya, H. and Ortiz, R. (2013) Food, Nutrition and Agrobiodiversity under Global Climate Change. In: Advances in Agronomy, Elsevier, 1-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-407686-0.00001-4
[83]
Ruel, M.T., Garrett, J., Yosef, S. and Olivier, M. (2017) Urbanization, Food Security and Nutrition. In: Nutrition and Health in a Developing World, Springer, 705-735. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43739-2_32
[84]
Mendez, M.A. and Popkin, B.M. (2004) Globalization, Urbanization and Nutritional Change in the Developing World. Journal of Development and Agricultural Economics, 1, 220-241.
[85]
Anderson, A., Lazarus, J. and Anderson Steeves, E. (2022) Navigating Hidden Hunger: An Exploratory Analysis of the Lived Experience of Food Insecurity among College Students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19, Article 12952. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912952
[86]
Gómez, M.I. and Ricketts, K.D. (2013) Food Value Chain Transformations in Developing Countries: Selected Hypotheses on Nutritional Implications. Food Policy, 42, 139-150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2013.06.010
[87]
Mangusho, G. (2013) Socio-Economic Manifestations of Hidden Hunger in Schoolchildren in Sub-Saharanafrica. International Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences, 2, 17-23. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnfs.20130201.14
Welch, R.M. (2001) Micronutrients, Agriculture and Nutrition; Linkages for Improved Health and Well-Being. In: Perspectives on the Micronutrient Nutrition of Crops, Scientific Publishers, 247-289.
Sommer, A. (1995) Vitamin A Deficiency and Its Consequences: A Field Guide to Detection and Control. World Health Organization.
[92]
Bailey, R.L., West, Jr. and Black, R.E. (2015) The Epidemiology of Global Micronutrient Deficiencies. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 66, 22-33. https://doi.org/10.1159/000371618
[93]
Stechmiller, J.K. (2010) Understanding the Role of Nutrition and Wound Healing. Nutrition in Clinical Practice, 25, 61-68. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533609358997
[94]
Chandra, R. (1997) Nutrition and the Immune System: An Introduction. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 66, 460S-463S. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/66.2.460s
[95]
Rytter, M.J.H., Kolte, L., Briend, A., Friis, H. and Christensen, V.B. (2014) The Immune System in Children with Malnutrition—A Systematic Review. PLOS ONE, 9, e105017. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0105017
[96]
Maberly, G.F., Trowbridge, F.L., Yip, R., Sullivan, K.M. and West, C.E. (1994) Programs against Micronutrient Malnutrition: Ending Hidden Hunger. Annual Review of Public Health, 15, 277-301. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pu.15.050194.001425
[97]
Bhutta, Z.A., Berkley, J.A., Bandsma, R.H.J., Kerac, M., Trehan, I. and Briend, A. (2017) Severe Childhood Malnutrition. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 3, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2017.67
[98]
Saunders, J., Smith, T. and Stroud, M. (2011) Malnutrition and Undernutrition. Medicine, 39, 45-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mpmed.2010.10.007
[99]
Tanumihardjo, S.A., Anderson, C., Kaufer-Horwitz, M., Bode, L., Emenaker, N.J., Haqq, A.M., et al. (2007) Poverty, Obesity, and Malnutrition: An International Perspective Recognizing the Paradox. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 107, 1966-1972. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2007.08.007
[100]
Biesalski, H.K. (2013) Hidden Hunger in the Developed World. In: The Road to Good Nutrition, Karger, 39-50. https://doi.org/10.1159/000355992
[101]
Zimmermann, M.B. (2016) The Importance of Adequate Iodine during Pregnancy and Infancy. In: World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics, S. Karger AG, 118-124. https://doi.org/10.1159/000442078
[102]
Tandoh, M. and Asamoah, M. (2022) The Magnitude of Hidden Hunger and Cognitive Deficits among Children Living in Orphanages in Kumasi, Ghana. Advances in Public Health, 2022, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9684785
[103]
Hoddinott, J., Behrman, J.R., Maluccio, J.A., Melgar, P., Quisumbing, A.R., Ramirez-Zea, M., et al. (2013) Adult Consequences of Growth Failure in Early Childhood. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 98, 1170-1178. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.064584
[104]
MacDonald, R.S. (2000) The Role of Zinc in Growth and Cell Proliferation. The Journal of Nutrition, 130, 1500S-1508S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/130.5.1500s
[105]
Savarino, G., Corsello, A. and Corsello, G. (2021) Macronutrient Balance and Micronutrient Amounts through Growth and Development. Italian Journal of Pediatrics, 47, Article No. 109. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13052-021-01061-0
[106]
Bhowmik, D., Chiranjib, K. and Kumar, S. (2010) A Potential Medicinal Importance of Zinc in Human Health and Chronic. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 1, 5-11.
[107]
Delisle, H.F. (2008) Poverty. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1136, 172-184. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1425.026
[108]
DeBoer, M.D., Lima, A.A., Oría, R.B., Scharf, R.J., Moore, S.R., Luna, M.A., et al. (2012) Early Childhood Growth Failure and the Developmental Origins of Adult Disease: Do Enteric Infections and Malnutrition Increase Risk for the Metabolic Syndrome? Nutrition Reviews, 70, 642-653. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2012.00543.x
[109]
Gupta, D.C.P. (2014) Role of Iron (Fe) in Body. IOSR Journal of Applied Chemistry, 7, 38-46. https://doi.org/10.9790/5736-071123846
[110]
Johnson, D. (2018) Iron-Induced Oxidative Stress is Associated with Decreased Brain L-DOPA in Sickle Cell Disease. Augusta University.
[111]
Mattei, D. and Pietrobelli, A. (2019) Micronutrients and Brain Development. Current Nutrition Reports, 8, 99-107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-019-0268-z
[112]
Bhatnagar, S. and Taneja, S. (2001) Zinc and Cognitive Development. British Journal of Nutrition, 85, S139-S145. https://doi.org/10.1079/bjn2000306
[113]
Kapil, U. (2007) Health Consequences of Iodine Deficiency. Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal, 7, 267-272. https://doi.org/10.18295/2075-0528.2681
[114]
Pérez-López, F.R. (2007) Iodine and Thyroid Hormones during Pregnancy and Postpartum. Gynecological Endocrinology, 23, 414-428. https://doi.org/10.1080/09513590701464092
[115]
Sethi, V. and Kapil, U. (2004) Iodine Deficiency and Development of Brain. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 71, 325-329. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02724099
[116]
Bain, L.E., Awah, P.K., Geraldine, N., Kindong, N.P., Sigal, Y., Bernard, N., et al. (2013) Malnutrition in Sub-Saharan Africa: Burden, Causes and Prospects. Pan African Medical Journal, 15, Article 120. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2013.15.120.2535
[117]
Initiative, M. (2009) Investing in the Future: A United Call to Action on Vitamin and Mineral Deficiencies. The Micronutrient Initiative, Ottawa, Canada.
[118]
Clark, S.F. (2008) Iron Deficiency Anemia. Nutrition in Clinical Practice, 23, 128-141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533608314536
[119]
Lenaerts, B. and Demont, M. (2021) The Global Burden of Chronic and Hidden Hunger Revisited: New Panel Data Evidence Spanning 1990–2017. Global Food Security, 28, Article 100480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100480
[120]
Xu, Y., Shan, Y., Lin, X., Miao, Q., Lou, L., Wang, Y., et al. (2021) Global Patterns in Vision Loss Burden Due to Vitamin a Deficiency from 1990 to 2017. Public Health Nutrition, 24, 5786-5794. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1368980021001324
[121]
Vijayaraghavan, K. (2018) National Control Programme against Nutritional Blindness Due to Vitamin A Deficiency. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 148, 496-502. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_1781_18
[122]
Shankar, A.H. and Prasad, A.S. (1998) Zinc and Immune Function: The Biological Basis of Altered Resistance to Infection. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 68, 447S-463S. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/68.2.447s
[123]
Pearce, E.N. (2014) Iodine Deficiency in Children. In: Endocrine Development, S. Karger AG, 130-138. https://doi.org/10.1159/000363160
[124]
Crawford, M.A. (2013) Non-Communicable Diseases, Mental Ill-Health. Nutrition and Health, 22, 171-179. https://doi.org/10.1177/0260106015613866
[125]
Mwenda, V., Mwangi, M., Nyanjau, L., Gichu, M., Kyobutungi, C. and Kibachio, J. (2018) Dietary Risk Factors for Non-Communicable Diseases in Kenya: Findings of the STEPS Survey, 2015. BMC Public Health, 18, Article No. 1218. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6060-y
[126]
Rock, C.L., Jacob, R.A. and Bowen, P.E. (1996) Update on the Biological Characteristics of the Antioxidant Micronutrients. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 96, 693-702. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-8223(96)00190-3
[127]
Koehlmoos, T.P., Anwar, S. and Cravioto, A. (2011) Global Health: Chronic Diseases and Other Emergent Issues in Global Health. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America, 25, 623-638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idc.2011.05.008
[128]
Black, R. (2003) Micronutrient Deficiency: An Underlying Cause of Morbidity and Mortality. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 81, 79.
[129]
Gernand, A.D., Schulze, K.J., Stewart, C.P., West, K.P. and Christian, P. (2016) Micronutrient Deficiencies in Pregnancy Worldwide: Health Effects and Prevention. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 12, 274-289. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2016.37
[130]
Christian, P. (2002) Maternal Nutrition, Health, and Survival. Nutrition Reviews, 60, S59-S63. https://doi.org/10.1301/00296640260130759
[131]
Branca, F. and Ferrari, M. (2002) Impact of Micronutrient Deficiencies on Growth: The Stunting Syndrome. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 46, 8-17. https://doi.org/10.1159/000066397
[132]
Ritchie, H. and Roser, M. (2017) Micronutrient Deficiency. Our World Data.
[133]
Allen, L.H. (2000) Ending Hidden Hunger: The History of Micronutrient Deficiency Control. World Bank.
[134]
Akhtar, S., Ismail, T., Atukorala, S. and Arlappa, N. (2013) Micronutrient Deficiencies in South Asia—Current Status and Strategies. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 31, 55-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2013.02.005
[135]
Iglesias Vázquez, L., Valera, E., Villalobos, M., Tous, M. and Arija, V. (2019) Prevalence of Anemia in Children from Latin America and the Caribbean and Effectiveness of Nutritional Interventions: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 11, Article 183. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11010183
[136]
Harding, K.L., Aguayo, V.M. and Webb, P. (2017) Hidden Hunger in South Asia: A Review of Recent Trends and Persistent Challenges. Public Health Nutrition, 21, 785-795. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1368980017003202
[137]
Kotecha, P. (2011) Nutritional Anemia in Young Children with Focus on Asia and India. Indian Journal of Community Medicine, 36, 8-16. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-0218.80786
[138]
Weisstaub, G., Aguilar, A.M. and Uauy, R. (2014) Treatment and Prevention of Malnutrition in Latin America: Focus on Chile and Bolivia. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 35, S39-S46. https://doi.org/10.1177/15648265140352s106
[139]
Darnton-Hill, I. and Coyne, E. (1998) Feast and Famine: Socioeconomic Disparities in Global Nutrition and Health. Public Health Nutrition, 1, 23-31. https://doi.org/10.1079/phn19980005
[140]
Hernández-Ruiz, Á., Madrigal, C., Soto-Méndez, M.J. and Gil, Á. (2022) Challenges and Perspectives of the Double Burden of Malnutrition in Latin America. Clínica e Investigaciónen Arteriosclerosis (English Edition), 34, 3-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.artere.2022.07.001
[141]
Siddiqui, F., Salam, R.A., Lassi, Z.S. and Das, J.K. (2020) The Intertwined Relationship between Malnutrition and Poverty. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, Article 453. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00453
[142]
Dent, E., Hoogendijk, E.O., Visvanathan, R. and Wright, O.R.L. (2019) Malnutrition Screening and Assessment in Hospitalised Older People: A Review. The Journal of Nutrition, Health and Aging, 23, 431-441. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-019-1176-z
[143]
Losurdo, G., Caccavo, N.L.B., Indellicati, G., Celiberto, F., Ierardi, E., Barone, M., etal. (2023) Effect of Long-Term Proton Pump Inhibitor Use on Blood Vitamins and Minerals: A Primary Care Setting Study. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 12, Article 2910. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12082910
[144]
Mander, H. and Jacob, S. (2010) Eating Rough, Hidden Hunger on City Streets: Searching for Solutions.
[145]
Vassilakou, T. (2021) Childhood Malnutrition: Time for Action. Children, 8, 103. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8020103
[146]
Alaimo, K. (2005) Food Insecurity in the United States. Topics in Clinical Nutrition, 20, 281-298. https://doi.org/10.1097/00008486-200510000-00002
[147]
Madjdian, D.S., Azupogo, F., Osendarp, S.J.M., Bras, H. and Brouwer, I.D. (2018) Socio-Cultural and Economic Determinants and Consequences of Adolescent Undernutrition and Micronutrient Deficiencies in LLMICs: A Systematic Narrative Review. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1416, 117-139. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13670
[148]
Barr, F., Brabin, L., Agbaje, S., Buseri, F., Ikimalo, J. and Briggs, N. (1998) Reducing Iron Deficiency Anaemia Due to Heavy Menstrual Blood Loss in Nigerian Rural Adolescents. Public Health Nutrition, 1, 249-257. https://doi.org/10.1079/phn19980041
[149]
Biesalski Hans, K. and Jana, T. (2018) Micronutrients in the Life Cycle: Requirements and Sufficient Supply. NFS Journal, 11, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nfs.2018.03.001
[150]
Norman, K., Haß, U. and Pirlich, M. (2021) Malnutrition in Older Adults—Recent Advances and Remaining Challenges. Nutrients, 13, Article 2764. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13082764
[151]
Brownie, S. (2006) Why Are Elderly Individuals at Risk of Nutritional Deficiency? International Journal of Nursing Practice, 12, 110-118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-172x.2006.00557.x
[152]
Rosenberg, I. and Miller, J. (1992) Nutritional Factors in Physical and Cognitive Functions of Elderly People. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 55, 1237S-1243S. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/55.6.1237s
[153]
Lanham-New, S.A. (2008) Importance of Calcium, Vitamin D and Vitamin K for Osteoporosis Prevention and Treatment. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 67, 163-176. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0029665108007003
[154]
Tata Ngome, P.I., Shackleton, C., Degrande, A. and Tieguhong, J.C. (2017) Addressing Constraints in Promoting Wild Edible Plants’ Utilization in Household Nutrition: Case of the Congo Basin Forest Area. Agriculture & Food Security, 6, Article No. 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-017-0097-5
[155]
Oniang’o, R.K., Mutuku, J.M. and Malaba, S.J. (2003) Contemporary African Food Habits and Their Nutritional and Health Implications. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 12, Article No. 3.
[156]
Young, M.F. and Ramakrishnan, U. (2020) Maternal Undernutrition before and during Pregnancy and Offspring Health and Development. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 76, 41-53. https://doi.org/10.1159/000510595
[157]
Teodosijevic, S.B. (2003) Armed Conflicts and Food Security.
[158]
Karume, K., Mondo, J.M., Chuma, G.B., Ibanda, A., Bagula, E.M., Aleke, A.L., et al. (2022) Current Practices and Prospects of Climate-Smart Agriculture in Democratic Republic of Congo: A Review. Land, 11, Article 1850. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11101850
[159]
World Bank Group (2018) Women, Business and the Law 2018. World Bank Publications.
[160]
Ishara, J., Cokola, M.C., Buzera, A., Mmari, M., Bugeme, D., Niassy, S., et al. (2023) Edible Insect Biodiversity and Anthropo-Entomophagy Practices in Kalehe and Idjwi Territories, D.R. Congo. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 19, Article No. 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-022-00575-z
[161]
Chuma, G.B. (2022) Farmers’ Knowledge and Practices of Soil Conservation Techniques in Smallholder Farming Systems of Northern Kabare, East of DR Congo. Environmental Challenges, 7, Article 100516.
[162]
Briker, S.M., Aduwo, J.Y., Mugeni, R., Horlyck-Romanovsky, M.F., DuBose, C.W., Mabundo, L.S., et al. (2019) A1C Underperforms as a Diagnostic Test in Africans Even in the Absence of Nutritional Deficiencies, Anemia and Hemoglobinopathies: Insight from the Africans in America Study. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 10, Article 533. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2019.00533
[163]
Aggarwal, P.K., Baethegan, W.E., Cooper, P., Gommes, R., Lee, B., Meinke, H., et al. (2010) Managing Climatic Risks to Combat Land Degradation and Enhance Food Security: Key Information Needs. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 1, 305-312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2010.09.019
[164]
Buhaug, H., Gleditsch, N.P. and Theisen, O.M. (2008) Implications of Climate Change for Armed Conflict. World Bank.
[165]
Khush, G.S., Lee, S., Cho, J. and Jeon, J. (2012) Biofortification of Crops for Reducing Malnutrition. Plant Biotechnology Reports, 6, 195-202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11816-012-0216-5
[166]
Ekholuenetale, M., Tudeme, G., Onikan, A. and Ekholuenetale, C.E. (2020) Socioeconomic Inequalities in Hidden Hunger, Undernutrition, and Overweight among Under-Five Children in 35 Sub-Saharan Africa Countries. Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association, 95, Article No. 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42506-019-0034-5
[167]
Ritchie, H., Reay, D.S. and Higgins, P. (2018) Quantifying, Projecting, and Addressing India’s Hidden Hunger. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 2, Article 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2018.00011
[168]
Olson, R., Gavin-Smith, B., Ferraboschi, C. and Kraemer, K. (2021) Food Fortification: The Advantages, Disadvantages and Lessons from Sight and Life Programs. Nutrients, 13, Article 1118.
[169]
Nair, M.K., Augustine, L.F. and Konapur, A. (2016) Food-Based Interventions to Modify Diet Quality and Diversity to Address Multiple Micronutrient Deficiency. Frontiers in Public Health, 3, Article 277. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2015.00277
[170]
Drammeh, W., Hamid, N.A. and Rohana, A.J. (2019) Determinants of Household Food Insecurity and Its Association with Child Malnutrition in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of the Literature. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science Journal, 7, 610-623. https://doi.org/10.12944/crnfsj.7.3.02
[171]
Aburto, N.J., Abudou, M., Candeias, V., et al. (2014) Effect and Safety of Salt Iodization to Prevent Iodine Deficiency Disorders: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analyses. World Health Organization.
[172]
Waha, K., van Wijk, M.T., Fritz, S., See, L., Thornton, P.K., Wichern, J., et al. (2018) Agricultural Diversification as an Important Strategy for Achieving Food Security in Africa. Global Change Biology, 24, 3390-3400. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14158
[173]
Amanto, B.S., Umanailo, M.C.B., et al. (2019) Local Consumption Diversification. International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research, 8, 1865-1869.
[174]
Kapelari, S., Alexopoulos, G., Moussouri, T., Sagmeister, K.J. and Stampfer, F. (2020) Food Heritage Makes a Difference: The Importance of Cultural Knowledge for Improving Education for Sustainable Food Choices. Sustainability, 12, Article 1509. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12041509
[175]
Lee, Y., Kim, T. and Jung, H. (2022) The Relationships between Food Literacy, Health Promotion Literacy and Healthy Eating Habits among Young Adults in South Korea. Foods, 11, Article 2467. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11162467
[176]
Ruel, M.T. and Levin, C.E. (2002) Food-Based Approaches for Alleviating Micronutrient Malnutrition: An Overview. Journal of Crop Production, 6, 31-53. https://doi.org/10.1300/j144v06n01_05
[177]
Mannar, M.V. (2006) Successful Food-Based Programmes, Supplementation and Fortification. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 43, S47-S53. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.mpg.0000255850.30400.ae
[178]
Faber, M., Berti, C. and Smuts, M. (2014) Prevention and Control of Micronutrient Deficiencies in Developing Countries: Current Perspectives. Nutrition and Dietary Supplements, 6, 41-57. https://doi.org/10.2147/nds.s43523
[179]
Mayo-Wilson, E., Imdad, A., Herzer, K., Yakoob, M.Y. and Bhutta, Z.A. (2011) Vitamin A Supplements for Preventing Mortality, Illness, and Blindness in Children Aged under 5: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. British Medical Journal, 343, d5094.
[180]
Ren, A., Wang, J., Ye, R.W., Li, S., Liu, J.M. and Li, Z. (2007) Low First-Trimester Hemoglobin and Low Birth Weight, Preterm Birth and Small for Gestational Age Newborns. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 98, 124-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgo.2007.05.011
[181]
Gianoudis, J., Bailey, C.A., Sanders, K.M., Nowson, C.A., Hill, K., Ebeling, P.R., et al. (2012) Osteo-Cise: Strong Bones for Life: Protocol for a Community-Based Randomised Controlled Trial of a Multi-Modal Exercise and Osteoporosis Education Program for Older Adults at Risk of Falls and Fractures. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, 13, Article No. 78. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2474-13-78
[182]
Wimalawansa, S.J. (2013) Food Fortification Programs to Alleviate Micronutrient Deficiencies. Journal of Food Processing & Technology, 4, Article 257. https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7110.1000257
[183]
Silitonga, H.T.H., Salim, L.A., Nurmala, I. and Wartiningsih, M. (2023) Compliance of Iron Supplementation and Determinants among Adolescent Girls: A Systematic Review. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 52, 37-48.
[184]
Renwick, A.G. (2006) Toxicology of Micronutrients: Adverse Effects and Uncertainty. Journal of Nutrition, 136, 493S-501S.
[185]
Burchi, F., Fanzo, J. and Frison, E. (2011) The Role of Food and Nutrition System Approaches in Tackling Hidden Hunger. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8, 358-373.
[186]
Winnick, S., Lucas, D.O., Hartman, A.L. and Toll, D. (2005) How Do You Improve Compliance? Pediatrics, 115, e718-e724.
[187]
Naresh, R.K. (2021) Neglected and Underutilized Crop Species the Key to Improving Soil Nutritional Security for Fighting Poverty, Hunger and Malnutrition in North-Western IGP: A Review. Journal of Pharmaceutical Innovation, 10, 1833-1839.
[188]
Siddique, K.H.M., Li, X. and Gruber, K. (2021) Rediscovering Asia’s Forgotten Crops to Fight Chronic and Hidden Hunger. Nature Plants, 7, 116-122. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41477-021-00850-z
[189]
Saltzman, A., Birol, E., Bouis, H.E., Boy, E., De Moura, F.F., Islam, Y., et al. (2013) Biofortification: Progress toward a More Nourishing Future. Global Food Security, 2, 9-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2012.12.003
[190]
Garg, M., Sharma, N., Sharma, S., Kapoor, P., Kumar, A., Chunduri, V., et al. (2018) Biofortified Crops Generated by Breeding, Agronomy, and Transgenic Approaches Are Improving Lives of Millions of People around the World. Frontiers in Nutrition, 5, Article 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2018.00012
[191]
Kumar, S., Palve, A., Joshi, C., Srivastava, R.K. (2019) Crop Biofortification for Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn) and Vitamin a with Transgenic Approaches. Heliyon, 5, e01914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01914
[192]
Titcomb, T.J. and Tanumihardjo, S.A. (2019) Global Concerns with B Vitamin Statuses: Biofortification, Fortification, Hidden Hunger, Interactions, and Toxicity. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 18, 1968-1984. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12491
[193]
Melash, A.A., Mengistu, D.K. and Aberra, D.A. (2016) Linking Agriculture with Health through Genetic and Agronomic Biofortification. Agricultural Sciences, 7, 295-307. https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2016.75029
[194]
Cakmak, I. and Kutman, U.B. (2017) Agronomic Biofortification of Cereals with Zinc: A Review. European Journal of Soil Science, 69, 172-180. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.12437
[195]
Ekesa, B.N., Kimiywe, J., Van den Bergh, I., Blomme, G., Dhuique-Mayer, C. and Davey, M. (2012) Content and Retention of Provitamin a Carotenoids Following Ripening and Local Processing of Four Popular Musa Cultivars from Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Sustainable Agriculture Research, 2, 60-75. https://doi.org/10.5539/sar.v2n2p60
[196]
Mwanga, R.O.M. and Ssemakula, G. (2011) Orange-Fleshed Sweet Potatoes for Food, Health and Wealth in Uganda. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 9, 42-49. https://doi.org/10.3763/ijas.2010.0546
[197]
Low, J.W., Mwanga, R.O.M., Andrade, M., Carey, E. and Ball, A.-M. (2017) Tackling Vitamin A Deficiency with Biofortified Sweet Potato in Sub-Saharan Africa. Global Food Security, 14, 23-30.
[198]
Osendarp, S.J.M. (2018) Large-Scale Food Fortification and Biofortification in Low and Middle-Income Countries: A Review of Programs, Trends, Challenges, and Evidence Gaps. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 39, 315-331.
[199]
Caradus, J.R. (2022) Intended and Unintended Consequences of Genetically Modified Crops—Myth, Fact and/or Manageable Outcomes? New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 66, 519-619. https://doi.org/10.1080/00288233.2022.2141273
[200]
Puett, C. and Guerrero, S. (2014) Barriers to Access for Severe Acute Malnutrition Treatment Services in Pakistan and Ethiopia: A Comparative Qualitative Analysis. Public Health Nutrition, 18, 1873-1882. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1368980014002444
[201]
Birner, R. and Sekher, M. (2018) The Devil Is in the Detail: Understanding the Governance Challenges of Implementing Nutrition-Specific Programs on a Large Scale. In: Hidden Hunger: Strategies to Improve Nutrition Quality, Karger, 17-44.
[202]
Bhutta, Z.A., Salam, R.A. and Das, J.K. (2013) Meeting the Challenges of Micronutrient Malnutrition in the Developing World. British Medical Bulletin, 106, 7-17. https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldt015
[203]
Talukder, A. (2010) Homestead Food Production Model Contributes to Improved Household Food Security and Nutrition Status of Young Children and Women in Poor Populations. Lessons Learned from Scaling-Up Programs in Asia (Bangladesh, Cambodia, Nepal and Philippines). Field Actions Science Reports.
[204]
Ruel, M.T., Quisumbing, A.R. and Balagamwala, M. (2018) Nutrition-Sensitive Agriculture: What Have We Learned So Far? Global Food Security, 17, 128-153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2018.01.002
[205]
Bhagwat, S., Sankar, R., Sachdeva, R. and Joseph, L. (2014) Improving the Nutrition Quality of the School Feeding Program (Mid-Day Meal) in India through Fortification: A Case Study. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 23, S12-S19.
[206]
Low, J.W., Arimond, M., Osman, N., Cunguara, B., Zano, F. and Tschirley, D. (2007) A Food-Based Approach Introducing Orange-Fleshed Sweet Potatoes Increased Vitamin A Intake and Serum Retinol Concentrations in Young Children in Rural Mozambique. The Journal of Nutrition, 137, 1320-1327. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/137.5.1320
[207]
Villamor, E. and Fawzi, W.W. (2005) Effects of Vitamin a Supplementation on Immune Responses and Correlation with Clinical Outcomes. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 18, 446-464. https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.18.3.446-464.2005
[208]
Allen, L.H. (2000) Anemia and Iron Deficiency: Effects on Pregnancy Outcome. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 71, 1280S-1284S.
[209]
Maina-Gathigi, L., Omolo, J., Wanzala, P., Lindan, C. and Makokha, A. (2012) Utilization of Folic Acid and Iron Supplementation Services by Pregnant Women Attending an Antenatal Clinic at a Regional Referral Hospital in Kenya. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 17, 1236-1242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-012-1120-x
[210]
Casey, G.J. (2017) Sustained Effectiveness of Weekly Iron-Folic Acid Supplementation and Regular Deworming over 6 Years in Women in Rural Vietnam. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 11, e0005446.
[211]
Nasir, B.B., Fentie, A.M. and Adisu, M.K. (2020) Adherence to Iron and Folic Acid Supplementation and Prevalence of Anemia among Pregnant Women Attending Antenatal Care Clinic at Tikur Anbessa Specialized Hospital, Ethiopia. PLOS One, 15, e0232625.
[212]
Smith, E.R. (2017) Modifiers of the Effect of Maternal Multiple Micronutrient Supplementation on Stillbirth, Birth Outcomes, and Infant Mortality: A Meta-Analysis of Individual Patient Data from 17 Randomised Trials in Low-Income and Middle-Income Countries. The Lancet Global Health, 5, e1090-e1100.
[213]
Passerini, L. (2012) Increased Birth Weight Associated with Regular Pre-Pregnancy Deworming and Weekly Iron-Folic Acid Supplementation for Vietnamese Women. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 6, e1608.
[214]
Garcia-Casal, M.N., Mowson, R., Rogers, L. and Grajeda, R. (2018) Risk of Excessive Intake of Vitamins and Minerals Delivered through Public Health Interventions: Objectives, Results, Conclusions of the Meeting, and the Way Forward. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1446, 5-20. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13975
[215]
Finkelstein, J.L., Mehta, S., Udipi, S.A., Ghugre, P.S., Luna, S.V., Wenger, M.J., et al. (2015) A Randomized Trial of Iron-Biofortified Pearl Millet in School Children in India. The Journal of Nutrition, 145, 1576-1581. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.114.208009
[216]
De Valença, A.W., Bake, A., Brouwer, I.D. and Giller, K.E. (2017) Agronomic Biofortification of Crops to Fight Hidden Hunger in Sub-Saharan Africa. Global Food Security, 12, 8-14.
[217]
Adenle, A.A., Aworh, O.C., Akromah, R. and Parayil, G. (2012) Developing GM Super Cassava for Improved Health and Food Security: Future Challenges in Africa. Agriculture & Food Security, 1, Article No. 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/2048-7010-1-11
[218]
Van Der Straeten, D., Bhullar, N.K., De Steur, H., Gruissem, W., MacKenzie, D., Pfeiffer, W., et al. (2020) Multiplying the Efficiency and Impact of Biofortification through Metabolic Engineering. Nature Communications, 11, Article No. 5203. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19020-4
[219]
Bouis, H. (2020) Food Biofortification: Reaping the Benefits of Science to Overcome Hidden Hunger. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST).
[220]
Palmer, A.C., Healy, K., Barffour, M.A., Siamusantu, W., Chileshe, J., Schulze, K.J., et al. (2016) Provitamin a Carotenoid–Biofortified Maize Consumption Increases Pupillary Responsiveness among Zambian Children in a Randomized Controlled Trial. The Journal of Nutrition, 146, 2551-2558. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.116.239202
[221]
Gómez-Galera, S., Rojas, E., Sudhakar, D., Zhu, C., Pelacho, A.M., Capell, T., et al. (2009) Critical Evaluation of Strategies for Mineral Fortification of Staple Food Crops. Transgenic Research, 19, 165-180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11248-009-9311-y
[222]
Onoja, A.O. and Adione, A.A. (2020) Hidden Hunger Burden and Policy Responses in Nigeria: Implications for Attainment of the Sustainable Development Goal. Nigerian Agricultural Policy Research Journal, 7, 8-20.
[223]
Qaim, M., Stein, A.J. and Meenakshi, J.V. (2007) Economics of Biofortification. Agricultural Economics, 37, 119-133. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2007.00239.x
[224]
Pritchard, C., Duffy, S., Edington, J. and Pang, F. (2006) Enteral Nutrition and Oral Nutrition Supplements: A Review of the Economics Literature. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition, 30, 52-59. https://doi.org/10.1177/014860710603000152
[225]
Govindaraj, M. (2015) Is Fortification or Bio Fortification of Staple Food Crops Will Offer a Simple Solution to Complex Nutritional Disorder in Developing Countries? Journal of Nutrition & Food Sciences, 5, 1-4.
[226]
Fieldhouse, P. (2013) Food and Nutrition: Customs and Culture. Springer.
[227]
Dary, O. (2008) Establishing Safe and Potentially Efficacious Fortification Contents for Folic Acid and Vitamin B12. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 29, S214-S224. https://doi.org/10.1177/15648265080292s126
[228]
WHO (2006) Guidelines on Food Fortification with Micronutrients. World Health Organization.
[229]
Maughan, R.J. (2013) Quality Assurance Issues in the Use of Dietary Supplements, with Special Reference to Protein Supplements. The Journal of Nutrition, 143, 1843S-1847S. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.113.176651
[230]
Thompson, B. (2007) Food-Based Approaches for Combating Iron Deficiency. Nutritional Anemia, 337, 1-21.
[231]
Faber, M. and van Jaarsveld, P.J. (2006) The Production of Provitamin A-Rich Vegetables in Home-Gardens as a Means of Addressing Vitamin a Deficiency in Rural African Communities. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 87, 366-377. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2774
[232]
Baker, L.E. (2004) Tending Cultural Landscapes and Food Citizenship in Toronto’s Community Gardens. Geographical Review, 94, 305-325. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1931-0846.2004.tb00175.x
[233]
Waized, B., Ndyetabula, D., Temu, A., Robinson, E. and Henson, S. (2015) Promoting Biofortified Crops for Nutrition: Lessons from Orange-Fleshed Sweet Potato (OFSP) in Tanzania. Sokoine University of Agriculture and The Institute of Development Studies.
[234]
Dickinson, J.L., Shirk, J., Bonter, D., Bonney, R., Crain, R.L., Martin, J., et al. (2012) The Current State of Citizen Science as a Tool for Ecological Research and Public Engagement. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10, 291-297. https://doi.org/10.1890/110236
[235]
Engle‐Stone, R., Vosti, S.A., Luo, H., Kagin, J., Tarini, A., Adams, K.P., et al. (2019) Weighing the Risks of High Intakes of Selected Micronutrients Compared with the Risks of Deficiencies. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1446, 81-101. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14128
[236]
Mwaniki, A. (2006) Achieving Food Security in Africa: Challenges and Issues. Office of the Special Adviser on Africa.
[237]
Allen, S. and de Brauw, A. (2018) Nutrition Sensitive Value Chains: Theory, Progress, and Open Questions. Global Food Security, 16, 22-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.07.002
[238]
Harnack, L., Oakes, J.M., Elbel, B., Beatty, T., Rydell, S. and French, S. (2016) Effects of Subsidies and Prohibitions on Nutrition in a Food Benefit Program. JAMA Internal Medicine, 176, 1610-1619. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.5633
[239]
Asi, L.N., Teri, D.T. and Meyer-Rochow, V.B. (2018) Influence of Food Taboos on Nutritional Patterns in Rural Communities in Cameroon. International Review of Social Research, 8, 2-6. https://doi.org/10.2478/irsr-2018-0013
[240]
Nestle, M. (1998) Behavioral and Social Influences on Food Choice. Nutrition Reviews, 56, S50-S64.
[241]
Aubel, J., Touré, I. and Diagne, M. (2004) Senegalese Grandmothers Promote Improved Maternal and Child Nutrition Practices: The Guardians of Tradition Are Not Averse to Change. Social Science & Medicine, 59, 945-959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2003.11.044
[242]
Marinac, J.S., Buchinger, C.L., Godfrey, L.A., et al. (2007) Herbal Products and Dietary Supplements: A Survey of Use, Attitudes, and Knowledge among Older Adults. Journal of Osteopathic Medicine, 107, 13-23.
[243]
DeSalvo, K.B., Wang, Y.C., Harris, A., Auerbach, J., Koo, D. and O’Carroll, P. (2017) Public Health 3.0: A Call to Action for Public Health to Meet the Challenges of the 21st Century. Preventing Chronic Disease, 14, Article 170017. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd14.170017
[244]
Nordhagen, S., Nielsen, J., van Mourik, T., Smith, E. and Klemm, R. (2019) Fostering CHANGE: Lessons from Implementing a Multi-Country, Multi-Sector Nutrition-Sensitive Agriculture Project. Evaluation and Program Planning, 77, Article 101695. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2019.101695
[245]
Thrupp, L.A. (2000) Linking Agricultural Biodiversity and Food Security: The Valuable Role of Agrobiodiversity for Sustainable Agriculture. International Affairs, 76, 265-281. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2346.00133
[246]
Brandt, K. and Mølgaard, J.P. (2001) Organic Agriculture: Does It Enhance or Reduce the Nutritional Value of Plant Foods? Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 81, 924-931. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.903
[247]
Chigumula, M. (2017) Exploring Micronutrient Fortification and Supplementation Programme in Malawi: A Review Study of Governmental and Non-Governmental Programs Implementation and Collaboration.
[248]
Aranda-Jan, C.B., Mohutsiwa-Dibe, N. and Loukanova, S. (2014) Systematic Review on What Works, What Does Not Work and Why of Implementation of Mobile Health (mHealth) Projects in Africa. BMC Public Health, 14, Article No. 188. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-188
[249]
Riely, F. (1999) Food Security Indicators and Framework for Use in the Monitoring and Evaluation of Food Aid Programs.
[250]
Nash, D., Elul, B., Rabkin, M., Tun, M., Saito, S., Becker, M., et al. (2009) Strategies for More Effective Monitoring and Evaluation Systems in HIV Programmatic Scale-Up in Resource-Limited Settings: Implications for Health Systems Strengthening. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 52, S58-S62. https://doi.org/10.1097/qai.0b013e3181bbcc45
[251]
Feroz, A., Jabeen, R. and Saleem, S. (2020) Using Mobile Phones to Improve Community Health Workers Performance in Low-and-Middle-Income Countries. BMC Public Health, 20, Article No. 49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-8173-3
[252]
Kusek, J.Z. (2010) Making Monitoring and Evaluation Systems Work: A Capacity Development Toolkit. World Bank Publications.
[253]
Ruel-Bergeron, J.C., Stevens, G.A., Sugimoto, J.D., Roos, F.F., Ezzati, M., Black, R.E., et al. (2015) Global Update and Trends of Hidden Hunger, 1995-2011: The Hidden Hunger Index. PLOS ONE, 10, e0143497. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143497
[254]
Antony, A.C., Vora, R.M. and Karmarkar, S.J. (2022) The Silent Tragic Reality of Hidden Hunger, Anaemia, and Neural-Tube Defects (NTDs) in India. The Lancet Regional Health—Southeast Asia, 6, Article 100071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lansea.2022.100071
[255]
Sandström, B. (2001) Micronutrient Interactions: Effects on Absorption and Bioavailability. British Journal of Nutrition, 85, S181. https://doi.org/10.1049/bjn2000312
[256]
Arshad, R., Gulshad, L., Haq, I., Farooq, M.A., Al-Farga, A., Siddique, R., et al. (2021) Nanotechnology: A Novel Tool to Enhance the Bioavailability of Micronutrients. Food Science & Nutrition, 9, 3354-3361. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.2311
[257]
Bennett, G., Bardon, L.A. and Gibney, E.R. (2022) A Comparison of Dietary Patterns and Factors Influencing Food Choice among Ethnic Groups Living in One Locality: A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 14, Article 941. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14050941
[258]
Soares, J.C., Santos, C.S., Carvalho, S.M.P., Pintado, M.M. and Vasconcelos, M.W. (2019) Preserving the Nutritional Quality of Crop Plants under a Changing Climate: Importance and Strategies. Plant and Soil, 443, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-019-04229-0
[259]
Reyers, B. and Selig, E.R. (2020) Global Targets That Reveal the Social–Ecological Interdependencies of Sustainable Development. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 4, 1011-1019. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-020-1230-6
[260]
Ervin, D., Tuholske, C. and López-Carr, D. (2017) Global Hunger. In: Food and Place: A Critical Exploration, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 106.
[261]
Sharma, A. and Verma, R.K. (2019) Biofortification: A Promising Approach toward Eradication of Hidden Hunger. In: Microbial Interventions in Agriculture and Environment, Springer, 313-327. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8391-5_12
