Autophagy and cancer stem cells: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic applications

Roles of autophagy in cancer stem cells (CSCs). Tumor cells are heterogeneous and include cancer stem cell (CSC) populations. CSCs are often characterized by high levels of autophagy that (1) maintain pluripotency; (2) cope with low nutrients and oxygen levels (hypoxia) in the tumor microenvironment; (3) regulate CSCs migration and invasion; (4) promote resistance to chemotherapy, (5) help to escape immunosurveillance; (6) support oncovirus capability to infect, replicate in and kill them. In this scenario, autophagy manipulation is found to be crucial for the effective targeting of cancer cells. Aa: Amino acids; Glc: Glucose; NK: Natural Killer; O2: Oxyge