Soil samples from 139 agricultural orchard fields (apple, grape, tea, and
others) were analyzed using the soil fertility index. From these samples, an orchard
field database was constructed and the soil properties between orchard, upland,
and paddy fields were compared. The average value of bacterial biomass in the orchard fields
was 7.4 × 108 cells/g-soil, ranging from not detected (lower than
6.6 × 106 cells/g-soil) to 7.7 × 109 cells/g-soil. The
average values of total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus
(TP), and total potassium (TK), were 24,000 mg/kg (2670 to 128,100 mg/kg), 1460
mg/kg (133 to 6400 mg/kg), 1030 mg/kg (142 to 5362 mg/kg), and 5370 mg/kg (1214
to 18,155 mg/kg), respectively. The C/N and C/P ratios were 19 (3 to 85) and 27
(2 to 101), respectively. Soil properties of the orchard fields were compared
with those of the upland and the paddy fields. The average value of bacterial
biomass in the orchard fields was almost the same as that in the upland fields
(8.0 × 108 cells/g-soil), but the number was lower than that in the
paddy fields (12.9 × 108 cells/g-soil). The average values of TC and
TN in the orchard fields fell between those in the upland fields (TC: 33,120
mg/kg, TN: 2010 mg/kg) and the paddy fields (TC: 15,420 mg/kg, TN: 1080mg/kg). The relationship
between the bacterial biomass and TC in the orchard fields resembled that in
the upland fields. A suitable soil condition for the orchard fields was
determined as TC: ≥25,000 mg/kg, TN: ≥1500 mg/kg, TP: ≥900 mg/kg and TK: 2500 -
10,000 mg/kg.These
recommended values will be effective for the improvement of the soil quality in
the orchard fields by enhancing the number and activities of
References
[1]
Tilman, D., Cassman, K.G., Matson, P.A., Naylor, R. and Polasky, S. (2002) Agricultural Sustainability and Intensive Production Practices. Nature, 418, 671-677.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01014
[2]
Seufert, V., Ramankutty, N. and Foley, J.A. (2012) Comparing the Yields of Organic and Conventional Agriculture. Nature, 485, 229-232.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11069
[3]
Matson, P.A., Parton, W.J., Power, A.G. and Swift, M.J. (1997) Agricultural Intensification and Ecosystem Properties. Science, 277, 504-509.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5325.504
[4]
Willer, H., Schlatter, B., Travniek, J., Kemper, L. and Lernoud, J. (2020) The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2020. Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Frick and IFOAM Organics International, Bonn.
[5]
Singh, B.K., Kuhad, R.C., Singh, A., Lal, R. and Tripathi, K.K. (1999) Biochemical and Molecular Basis of Pesticide Degradation by Microorganisms. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, 19, 197-225. https://doi.org/10.1080/0738-859991229242
[6]
Singh, J., Singh, S., Vig, A.P., Bhat, S.A., Hundal, S.S., Yin, R. and Schadler, M. (2018) Conventional Farming Reduces the Activity of Earthworms: Assessment of Genotoxicity Test of Soil and Vermicast. Agriculture and Natural Resources, 52, 366-370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anres.2018.10.012
[7]
Shah, F. and Wu, W. (2019) Soil and Crop Management Strategies to Ensure Higher Crop Productivity within Sustainable Environments. Sustainability Science, 11, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11051485
[8]
Tuomisto, H.L., Hodge, I.D., Riordan, P. and Macdonald, D.W. (2012) Does Organic Farming Reduce Environmental Impacts? A Meta-Analysis of European Research. Journal of Environmental Management, 112, 309-320.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.08.018
[9]
Gomiero, T., Pimentel, D. and Paoletti, M.G. (2011) Environmental Impact of Different Agricultural Management Practices: Conventional vs. Organic Agriculture. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 30, 95-124.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07352689.2011.554355
[10]
Knapp, S. and Van der Heijden, M.G.A. (2018) A Global Meta-Analysis of Yield Stability in Organic and Conservation Agriculture. Nature Communications, 9, Article No. 3632. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-05956-1
[11]
Mitchell, A.E., Hong, Y.J., Koh, E., Barrett, D.M., Bryant, D.E., Denison, R.F. and Kaffka, S. (2007) Ten-Year Comparison of the Influence of Organic and Conventional Crop Management Practices on the Content of Flavonoids in Tomatoes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 55, 6154-6159.
https://doi.org/10.1021/jf070344+
[12]
Maeder, P., Fliessbach, A., Dubois, D., Gunst, L., Fried, P. and Niggli, U. (2002) Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming. Science, 296, 1694-1697.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1071148
[13]
Ponti, T.D., Rijk, B. and Ittersum, M.K.V. (2012) The Crop Yield Gap between Organic and Conventional Agriculture. Agricultural Systems, 108, 1-9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2011.12.004
[14]
Ponisio, L.C., M'gonigle, L.K., Mace, K.C., Palomino, J., Valpine, P.D. and Kremen, C. (2015) Diversification Practices Reduce Organic to Conventional Yield Gap. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 282, 20141396.
[15]
Amarante, C.V.T.D., Steffens, C.A., Mafra, á.L. and Albuquerque, J.A. (2008) Yield and Fruit Quality of Apple from Conventional and Organic Production Systems. Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, 43, 333-340.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X2008000300007
[16]
Adhikari, D., Kai, T., Mukai, M., Araki, K.S. and Kubo, M. (2014) A New Proposal for a Soil Fertility Index (SOFIX) for Organic Agriculture and Development of a SOFIX Database for Agricultural Fields. Current Topics in Biotechnology, 8, 81-91.
[17]
Motoki, K. (2017) Dojodukuri No Science. Seibumdo-Shinkosha, Tokyo, 1-191.
[18]
Pholkaw, P., Muraji, A., Maeda, K., Kawagoe, T., Kubota, K., Sanpa, S., Tran, Q.T. and Kubo, M. (2019) Utilization of Wood Biomass for Organic Soil Based on the Soil Fertility Index (SOFIX). Journal of Agricultural Chemistry and Environment, 8, 224-236. https://doi.org/10.4236/jacen.2019.8417
[19]
Araki, K.S., Perwira, I.Y., Adhikari, D. and Kubo, M. (2016) Comparison of Soil Properties between Upland and Paddy Fields Based on the Soil Fertility Index (SOFIX). Current Trends in Microbiology, 10, 85-94.
[20]
Yargicoglu, E.N., Sadasivam, B.Y., Reddy, K.R. and Spokas, K. (2015) Physical and Chemical Characterization of Waste Wood Derived Biochars. Waste Management, 36, 256-268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2014.10.029
[21]
Donald Nicholas, D.J. and Nason, A. (1957) Determination of Nitrate and Nitrite. Methods in Enzymology, 3, 981-984.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0076-6879(57)03489-8
[22]
Murphy, J. and Riley, J.P. (1962) A Modified Single Solution Method for the Determination of Phosphate in Natural Waters. Analytica Chimica Acta, 27, 31-36.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-2670(00)88444-5
[23]
Aoshima, H., Kimura, A., Shibutani, A., Okada, C., Matsumiya, Y. and Kubo, M. (2006) Evaluation of Soil Bacterial Biomass Using Environmental DNA Extracted by Slow-Stirring Method. Applied Genetics and Molecular Biotechnology, 71, 875-880. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-005-0245-x
[24]
Horii, S., Matsuno, T., Tagomori, J., Mukai, M., Adhikari, D. and Kubo, M. (2013) Isolation and Identification of Phytate-Degrading Bacteria and Their Contribution to Phytate Mineralization in Soil. The Journal of General and Applied Microbiology, 59, 353-360. https://doi.org/10.2323/jgam.59.353
[25]
Takahashi, K. (1978) Soil Amendment and Fertilizer Application Improvement in Upland Fields of Red and Yellow Soils in Japan. Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly, 12, 74-78.
[26]
Shinoto, Y., Matsunami, T., Otani, R. and Maruyama, S. (2018) Growth and Yield of Maize Using Two Tillage Systems in Crop Rotation of Paddy Fields. Plant Production Science, 22, 58-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/1343943X.2018.1545456
[27]
Simon, S., Bouvier, J.C., Debras, J.F. and Sauphanor, B. (2010) Biodiversity and Pest Management in Orchard Systems. A Review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 30, 139-152. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro/2009013
[28]
Huang, H. (2016) Kiwifruit the Genus Actinidia. Elsevier Inc., Amsterdam, 265-295.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803066-0.00007-1
[29]
Alekseeva, T., Alekseev, A., Xu, R.K., Zhao, A.Z. and Kalinin, P. (2010) Effect of Soil Acidification Induced by a Tea Plantation on Chemical and Mineralogical Properties of Alfisols in Eastern China. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 33, 137-148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-010-9327-5
[30]
Abe, S.S., Hashi, I., Masunaga, T., Yamamoto, S., Honna, T. and Wakatsuki, T. (2006) Soil Profile Alteration in a Brown Forest Soil under High-Input Tea Cultivation. Plant Production Science, 9, 457-461. https://doi.org/10.1626/pps.9.457
[31]
Ruan, J., Ma, L. and Shi, Y. (2006) Aluminium in Tea Plantations: Mobility in Soils and Plants, and the Influence of Nitrogen Fertilization. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 28, 519-528. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-006-9047-z
[32]
Oh, K., Kato, T., Li, Z.P. and Li, F.Y. (2006) Environmental Problems from Tea Cultivation in Japan and a Control Measure Using Calcium Cyanamide. Pedosphere, 16, 770-777. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1002-0160(06)60113-6
[33]
Guo, J.H., Liu, X.J., Zhang, Y., Shen, J.L., Han, W.X., Zhang, W.F., Christie, P., Goulding, K.W.T., Vitousek, P.M. and Zhang, F.S. (2010) Significant Acidification in Major Chinese Croplands. Science, 327, 1008-1010.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1182570
[34]
Ruan, J., Zhang, F. and Wong, M.H. (2000) Effect of Nitrogen Form and Phosphorus Source on the Growth, Nutrient Uptake and Rhizosphere Soil Property of Camellia sinensis L. Plant and Soil, 223, 65-73.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1004882001803
[35]
Ruan, J., Ma, L., Shi, Y. and Zhang, F. (2004) Effects of Litter Incorporation and Nitrogen Fertilization on the Contents of Extractable Aluminium in the Rhizosphere Soil of Tea Plant (Camallia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze). Plant and Soil, 263, 283-296.
https://doi.org/10.1023/B:PLSO.0000047744.44940.96
[36]
Kai, T., Mukai, M., Araki, K., Adhikari, D. and Kubo, M. (2016) Analysis of Chemical and Biological Soil Properties in Organically and Conventionally Fertilized Apple Orchards. Journal of Agricultural Chemistry and Environment, 5, 92-99.
https://doi.org/10.4236/jacen.2016.52010
[37]
Tagliavini, M., Tonon, G., Scandellari, F., Quinones, A., Palmieri, S., Menarbin, G., Gioacchini, P. and Masia, A. (2007) Nutrient Recycling During the Decomposition of Appleleaves (Malus domestica) and Mowed Grasses in an Orchard. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 118, 191-200.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2006.05.018
[38]
Khan, M.A.I., Ueno, K., Horimoto, S., Komai, F., Tanaka, K. and Ono, Y. (2007) Evaluation of the Physio-Chemical and Microbial Properties of Green Tea Waste-Rice Bran Compost and the Effect of the Compost on Spinach Production. Plant Production Science, 10, 391-399. https://doi.org/10.1626/pps.10.391
