Background: Surveillance of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a critical component of antimicrobial stewardship. Zambia recently developed and implemented AMR surveillance in layer and broiler poultry sectors. This study evaluated the AMR surveillance system used in poultry production in Zambia. Methods: This cross-sectional study employed qualitative methods and was conducted from September 2020 to April 2022. The evaluation was done using the Centres for Disease Control (CDC) guidelines. All responses from participants were categorised into themes. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the data that were collected from key informants. Results: This study found that the AMR surveillance used in poultry in Zambia is efficient and effective in monitoring the resistance profiles of specified microorganisms. The initial financing of surveillance activities was done by the Government of the Republic of Zambia through the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, the Flemming Fund, UK Programme and other key stakeholders. The study found that the AMR surveillance strategy was simple and partially flexible. However, it was not representative of the entire country as it was being conducted in five provinces out of the ten. Additionally, the data quality was affected by a lack of human and financial resources, using paper-based methods, data sharing challenges, and a lack of integration between epidemiological and laboratory data. Furthermore, AMR surveillance was not consistently implemented due to a lack of human resources and an inconsistent supply of reagents in most surveillance sites and laboratories. Conclusion: The AMR surveillance system used in poultry in Zambia faces challenges such as a lack of human and financial resources, inadequate data management and sharing software, and a lack of integration of the poultry surveillance system into the human health surveillance system. Therefore, there is a need to strengthen the AMR surveillance system in the poultry sector in Zambia to mitigate antimicrobial-resistant infections.
References
[1]
Mudenda, S., Hakayuwa, C.M., Lubanga, A.F., Kasanga, M., Daka, V., Salachi, K.I., et al. (2025) Global Antimicrobial Stewardship, Surveillance, and Infection Prevention and Control Programs: Leveraging One Health, Nanotechnology, and Artificial Intelligence to Combat Antimicrobial Resistance in a Climate-Impacted World. Pharmacology&Pharmacy, 16, 197-291. https://doi.org/10.4236/pp.2025.167014
[2]
Salam, M.A., Al-Amin, M.Y., Salam, M.T., Pawar, J.S., Akhter, N., Rabaan, A.A., et al. (2023) Antimicrobial Resistance: A Growing Serious Threat for Global Public Health. Healthcare, 11, Article 1946. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11131946
[3]
Murray, C.J., Ikuta, K.S., Sharara, F., Swetschinski, L., Robles Aguilar, G., Gray, A., et al. (2022) Global Burden of Bacterial Antimicrobial Resistance in 2019: A Systematic Analysis. Lancet, 399, 629-655. http://www.thelancet.com/article/S0140673621027240/fulltext
[4]
Dadgostar, P. (2019) Antimicrobial Resistance: Implications and Costs. InfectionandDrugResistance, 12, 3903-3910. https://doi.org/10.2147/idr.s234610
[5]
Prestinaci, F., Pezzotti, P. and Pantosti, A. (2015) Antimicrobial Resistance: A Global Multifaceted Phenomenon. PathogensandGlobalHealth, 109, 309-318. https://doi.org/10.1179/2047773215y.0000000030
[6]
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2019) Monitoring and Surveillance of Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria from Healthy Food Animals Intended for Consumption. Vol. 1, Regional Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring and Surveillance Guidelines. 1-84. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca6897en/
[7]
World Health Organization (2017) Integrated Surveillance of Antimicrobial Resistance in Foodborne Bacteria: Application of a One Health Approach. World Health Organization, 1-88. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/255747
[8]
Schnall, J., Rajkhowa, A., Ikuta, K., Rao, P. and Moore, C.E. (2019) Surveillance and Monitoring of Antimicrobial Resistance: Limitations and Lessons from the GRAM Project. BMCMedicine, 17, Article No. 176. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1412-8
[9]
Tacconelli, E., Sifakis, F., Harbarth, S., Schrijver, R., van Mourik, M., Voss, A., et al. (2018) Surveillance for Control of Antimicrobial Resistance. TheLancetInfectiousDiseases, 18, e99-e106. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1473-3099(17)30485-1
[10]
Nulty, K.M., Soon, J.M., Wallace, C.A. and Nastasijevic, I. (2016) Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring and Surveillance in the Meat Chain: A Report from Five Countries in the European Union and European Economic Area. TrendsinFoodScience&Technology, 58, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2016.09.010
[11]
Ayukekbong, J.A., Ntemgwa, M. and Atabe, A.N. (2017) The Threat of Antimicrobial Resistance in Developing Countries: Causes and Control Strategies. AntimicrobialResistance&InfectionControl, 6, Article No. 47. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-017-0208-x
[12]
Pham-Duc, P., Cook, M.A., Cong-Hong, H., Nguyen-Thuy, H., Padungtod, P., Nguyen-Thi, H., et al. (2019) Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices of Livestock and Aquaculture Producers Regarding Antimicrobial Use and Resistance in Vietnam. PLOSONE, 14, e0223115. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223115
[13]
Irfan, M., Almotiri, A. and AlZeyadi, Z.A. (2022) Antimicrobial Resistance and Its Drivers—A Review. Antibiotics, 11, Article 1362. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11101362
[14]
Mumbula, I., Mudenda, S., Trupe, L., Thendji, L.M., Gorle, A., Glennie, A., et al. (2026) Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices Regarding Antimicrobial Use and Resistance among Smallholder Dairy Farmers in Zambia: A Cross-Sectional Study. FrontiersinVeterinaryScience, 13, Article 1731209. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2026.1731209
[15]
Paul, R.J. and Varghese, D. (2020) AMR in Animal Health: Issues and One Health Solutions for LMICs. In: Thomas, S., Ed., AntimicrobialResistance, Springer Singapore, 135-149. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3658-8_6
[16]
Ferri, M., Ranucci, E., Romagnoli, P. and Giaccone, V. (2017) Antimicrobial Resistance: A Global Emerging Threat to Public Health Systems. CriticalReviewsinFoodScienceandNutrition, 57, 2857-2876. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2015.1077192
[17]
Hinchliffe, S., Butcher, A. and Rahman, M.M. (2018) The AMR Problem: Demanding Economies, Biological Margins, and Co-Producing Alternative Strategies. PalgraveCommunications, 4, Article No. 142. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-018-0195-4
[18]
Tufa, T.B., Regassa, F., Amenu, K., Stegeman, J.A. and Hogeveen, H. (2023) Livestock Producers’ Knowledge, Attitude, and Behavior (KAB) Regarding Antimicrobial Use in Ethiopia. FrontiersinVeterinaryScience, 10, Article 1167847. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1167847
[19]
Otaigbe, I.I. and Elikwu, C.J. (2023) Drivers of Inappropriate Antibiotic Use in Low-and Middle-Income Countries. JAC-AntimicrobialResistance, 5, dlad062. https://doi.org/10.1093/jacamr/dlad062
[20]
Bwalya, A., M’kandawire, E., Pyatt, A., Prince, C., Gilbert, C., Muma, J.B., et al. (2026) Non-Prescription Dispensing of Veterinary Medicines for Treating Mastitis in Dairy Cattle among Non-Veterinary Personnel in Selected Districts of Zambia. FrontiersinVeterinaryScience, 12, Article 1707434. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1707434
[21]
Kiambi, S., Mwanza, R., Sirma, A., Czerniak, C., Kimani, T., Kabali, E., et al. (2021) Understanding Antimicrobial Use Contexts in the Poultry Sector: Challenges for Small-Scale Layer Farms in Kenya. Antibiotics, 10, Article 106. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10020106
[22]
Butaye, P., Devriese, L.A. and Haesebrouck, F. (2003) Antimicrobial Growth Promoters Used in Animal Feed: Effects of Less Well Known Antibiotics on Gram-Positive Bacteria. ClinicalMicrobiologyReviews, 16, 175-188. https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.16.2.175-188.2003
[23]
Agyare, C., Etsiapa Boamah, V., Ngofi Zumbi, C. and Boateng Osei, F. (2019) Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance. In: Kumar, Y., Ed., AntimicrobialResistance—AGlobalThreat, IntechOpen, 33-51. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79371
[24]
Kalia, V.C., Shim, W.Y., Patel, S.K.S., Gong, C. and Lee, J. (2022) Recent Developments in Antimicrobial Growth Promoters in Chicken Health: Opportunities and Challenges. ScienceoftheTotalEnvironment, 834, Article ID: 155300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155300
[25]
Mudenda, S., Mulenga, K.M., Nyirongo, R., Chabalenge, B., Chileshe, C., Daka, V., et al. (2024) Non-Prescription Sale and Dispensing of Antibiotics for Prophylaxis in Broiler Chickens in Lusaka District, Zambia: Findings and Implications on One Health. JAC-AntimicrobialResistance, 6, dlae094. https://doi.org/10.1093/jacamr/dlae094
[26]
Hedman, H.D., Vasco, K.A. and Zhang, L. (2020) A Review of Antimicrobial Resistance in Poultry Farming within Low-Resource Settings. Animals, 10, Article 1264. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10081264
[27]
Tornimbene, B., Eremin, S., Abednego, R., Abualas, E.O., Boutiba, I., Egwuenu, A., et al. (2022) Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System on the African Continent: Early Implementation 2017-2019. AfricanJournalofLaboratoryMedicine, 11, a1594. https://doi.org/10.4102/ajlm.v11i1.1594
[28]
Kariuki, S., Kering, K., Wairimu, C., Onsare, R. and Mbae, C. (2022) Antimicrobial Resistance Rates and Surveillance in Sub-Saharan Africa: Where Are We Now? InfectionandDrugResistance, 15, 3589-3609. https://doi.org/10.2147/idr.s342753
[29]
Seale, A.C., Gordon, N.C., Islam, J., Peacock, S.J. and Scott, J.A.G. (2017) AMR Surveillance in Low and Middle-Income Settings—A Roadmap for Participation in the Global Antimicrobial Surveillance System (Glass). WellcomeOpenResearch, 2, Article 92. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.12527.1
[30]
Essack, S.Y., Desta, A.T., Abotsi, R.E. and Agoba, E.E. (2017) Antimicrobial Resistance in the WHO African Region: Current Status and Roadmap for Action. JournalofPublicHealth, 39, 8-13. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdw015
[31]
Matee, M., Mshana, S.E., Mtebe, M., Komba, E.V., Moremi, N., Lutamwa, J., et al. (2023) Mapping and Gap Analysis on Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Systems in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. BulletinoftheNationalResearchCentre, 47, Article No. 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42269-023-00986-2
[32]
Gandra, S., Alvarez-Uria, G., Turner, P., Joshi, J., Limmathurotsakul, D. and van Doorn, H.R. (2020) Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance in Low-and Middle-Income Countries: Progress and Challenges in Eight South Asian and Southeast Asian Countries. ClinicalMicrobiologyReviews, 33, e00048-19. https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.00048-19
[33]
Iramiot, J.S., Kajumbula, H., Bazira, J., Kansiime, C. and Asiimwe, B.B. (2020) Antimicrobial Resistance at the Human-Animal Interface in the Pastoralist Communities of Kasese District, South Western Uganda. ScientificReports, 10, Article No. 14737. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-70517-w
[34]
World Health Organization (2015) Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/193736
[35]
Babu Rajendran, N., Arieti, F., Mena-Benítez, C.A., Galia, L., Tebon, M., Alvarez, J., et al. (2023) Epi-Net One Health Reporting Guideline for Antimicrobial Consumption and Resistance Surveillance Data: A Delphi Approach. The Lancet Regional Health—Europe, 26, Article ID: 100563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2022.100563
[36]
Mudenda, S., Chabalenge, B., Daka, V., Mfune, R.L., Salachi, K.I., Mohamed, S., et al. (2023) Global Strategies to Combat Antimicrobial Resistance: A One Health Perspective. Pharmacology&Pharmacy, 14, 271-328. https://doi.org/10.4236/pp.2023.148020
[37]
IACG (2018) Surveillance and Monitoring for Antimicrobial Use and Resistance. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/antimicrobial-resistance/amr-gcp-tjs/iacg-surveillance-and-monitoring-for-amu-and-amr-110618.pdf
[38]
World Health Organization (2015) Global Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System. Manual for Early Implementation. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241549400
[39]
World Health Organization (2022) Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) Report: 2022. World Health Organization, 1-82. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240062702
[40]
Bennani, H., Cornelsen, L., St？rk, K.D.C. and H？sler, B. (2021) Characterisation and Mapping of the Surveillance System for Antimicrobial Resistance and Antimicrobial Use in the United Kingdom. VeterinaryRecord, 188, e10. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.10
[41]
Lomazzi, M., Moore, M., Johnson, A., Balasegaram, M. and Borisch, B. (2019) Antimicrobial Resistance—Moving Forward? BMCPublicHealth, 19, Article No. 858. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7173-7
[42]
World Health Organization (2018) Global Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System (GLASS) Report: Early Implementation 2017-2018. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241515061
[43]
Chua, A.Q., Verma, M., Hsu, L.Y. and Legido-Quigley, H. (2021) An Analysis of National Action Plans on Antimicrobial Resistance in Southeast Asia Using a Governance Framework Approach. TheLancetRegionalHealth—WesternPacific, 7, Article ID: 100084. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanwpc.2020.100084
[44]
Zambia National Public Health Institute (2017) Multi-Sectoral National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance. Zambia National Public Health Institute. https://www.afro.who.int/publications/multi-sectoral-national-action-plan-antimicrobial-resistance-2017-2027
[45]
Yamba, K., Chizimu, J.Y., Chanda, R., Mpundu, M., Samutela, M.T., Chanda, D., et al. (2025) Antibiotic Resistance Profiles in Gram-Negative Bacteria Causing Bloodstream and Urinary Tract Infections in Paediatric and Adult Patients in Ndola District, Zambia, 2020-2021. InfectionPreventioninPractice, 7, Article ID: 100462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infpip.2025.100462
[46]
Kasanga, M., Shempela, D.M., Daka, V., Mwikisa, M.J., Sikalima, J., Chanda, D., et al. (2024) Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles of Escherichia coli Isolated from Clinical and Environmental Samples: Findings and Implications. JAC-AntimicrobialResistance, 6, dlae061. https://doi.org/10.1093/jacamr/dlae061
[47]
Mudenda, S., Mufwambi, W. and Mohamed, S. (2024) The Burden of Antimicrobial Resistance in Zambia, a Sub-Saharan African Country: A One Health Review of the Current Situation, Risk Factors, and Solutions. Pharmacology&Pharmacy, 15, 403-465. https://doi.org/10.4236/pp.2024.1512024
[48]
Sinyawa, T., Goma, F., Chileshe, C., Mudenda, N.B., Mudenda, S., Siame, A., et al. (2025) Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles of Bacteria Isolated from the Animal Health Sector in Zambia (2020-2024): Opportunities to Strengthen Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance and Stewardship Programs. Antibiotics, 14, Article 1102. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14111102
[49]
Chizimu, J.Y., Kalungia, A.C., Mudenda, S., Muhimba, Z., Lukwesa, C., Mufwambi, W., et al. (2025) Diagnostic Stewardship Trends and Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles of Bacteria Isolated in Zambia: A Five-Year Retrospective Study (2020–2024). Antibiotics, 14, Article 1136. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14111136
[50]
Alemu, T., Gutema, H., Legesse, S., Nigussie, T., Yenew, Y. and Gashe, K. (2019) Evaluation of Public Health Surveillance System Performance in Dangila District, Northwest Ethiopia: A Concurrent Embedded Mixed Quantitative/qualitative Facility-Based Cross-Sectional Study. BMC Public Health, 19, Article No. 1343. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7724-y
[51]
Mudenda, S., Matafwali, S.K., Malama, S., Munyeme, M., Yamba, K., Katemangwe, P., et al. (2022) Prevalence and Antimicrobial Resistance Patterns of Enterococcus Species Isolated from Laying Hens in Lusaka and Copperbelt Provinces of Zambia: A Call for AMR Surveillance in the Poultry Sector. JAC-AntimicrobialResistance, 4, dlac126. https://doi.org/10.1093/jacamr/dlac126
[52]
Mudenda, S., Bumbangi, F.N., Yamba, K., Munyeme, M., Malama, S., Mukosha, M., et al. (2023) Drivers of Antimicrobial Resistance in Layer Poultry Farming: Evidence from High Prevalence of Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli and Enterococci in Zambia. VeterinaryWorld, 16, 1803-1814. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2023.1803-1814
[53]
Mudenda, S., Malama, S., Munyeme, M., Matafwali, S.K., Kapila, P., Katemangwe, P., et al. (2023) Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles of Escherichia coli Isolated from Laying Hens in Zambia: Implications and Significance on One Health. JAC-AntimicrobialResistance, 5, dlad060. https://doi.org/10.1093/jacamr/dlad060
[54]
Mwansa, M., Mukuma, M., Mulilo, E., Kwenda, G., Mainda, G., Yamba, K., et al. (2023) Determination of Antimicrobial Resistance Patterns of Escherichia coli Isolates from Farm Workers in Broiler Poultry Production and Assessment of Antibiotic Resistance Awareness Levels among Poultry Farmers in Lusaka, Zambia. FrontiersinPublicHealth, 10, Article 998860. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.998860
[55]
Muligisa-Muonga, E., Mainda, G., Mukuma, M., Kwenda, G., Hang’ombe, B., Flavien, B.N., et al. (2021) Antimicrobial Resistance of Escherichiacoli and Salmonella Isolated from Retail Broiler Chicken Carcasses in Zambia. JournalofEpidemiologicalResearch, 6, 35-43. https://doi.org/10.5430/jer.v6n1p35
[56]
Phiri, N., Mainda, G., Mukuma, M., Sinyangwe, N.N., Banda, L.J., Kwenda, G., et al. (2020) Antibiotic-Resistant Salmonella Species and Escherichia coli in Broiler Chickens from Farms, Abattoirs, and Open Markets in Selected Districts of Zambia. JournalofEpidemiologicalResearch, 6, 13-21. https://doi.org/10.5430/jer.v6n1p13
[57]
de Kraker, M.E.A., Stewardson, A.J. and Harbarth, S. (2016) Will 10 Million People Die a Year Due to Antimicrobial Resistance by 2050? PLOSMedicine, 13, e1002184. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002184
[58]
Kariuki, S., Kering, K., Wairimu, C., Onsare, R. and Mbae, C. (2022) Antimicrobial Resistance Rates and Surveillance in Sub-Saharan Africa: Where Are We Now? Infection and Drug Resistance, 15, 3589-3609. https://doi.org/10.2147/idr.s342753
[59]
Zambia National Public Health Institute (2020) Zambia’s Integrated Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Framework. https://www.afro.who.int/publications/zambias-integrated-antimicrobial-resistance-surveillance-framework
[60]
Peyre, M., Hoinville, L., Njoroge, J., Cameron, A., Traon, D., Goutard, F., et al. (2019) The RISKSUR EVA Tool (Survtool): A Tool for the Integrated Evaluation of Animal Health Surveillance Systems. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 173, Article ID: 104777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2019.104777
[61]
Caudell, M.A., Dorado-Garcia, A., Eckford, S., Creese, C., Byarugaba, D.K., Afakye, K., et al. (2020) Towards a Bottom-Up Understanding of Antimicrobial Use and Resistance on the Farm: A Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices Survey across Livestock Systems in Five African Countries. PLOSONE, 15, e0220274. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220274
[62]
Donado-Godoy, P., Castellanos, R., León, M., Arevalo, A., Clavijo, V., Bernal, J., et al. (2015) The Establishment of the Colombian Integrated Program for Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance (COIPARS): A Pilot Project on Poultry Farms, Slaughterhouses and Retail Market. ZoonosesandPublicHealth, 62, 58-69. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12192
[63]
Mader, R., Mu？oz Madero, C., Aasm？e, B., Bourély, C., Broens, E.M., Busani, L., et al. (2022) Review and Analysis of National Monitoring Systems for Antimicrobial Resistance in Animal Bacterial Pathogens in Europe: A Basis for the Development of the European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Network in Veterinary Medicine (EARS-Vet). FrontiersinMicrobiology, 13, Article 838490. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.838490
[64]
Zhao, C., Wang, Y., Tiseo, K., Pires, J., Criscuolo, N.G. and Van Boeckel, T.P. (2021) Geographically Targeted Surveillance of Livestock Could Help Prioritize Intervention against Antimicrobial Resistance in China. NatureFood, 2, 596-602. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00320-x
[65]
Mremi, I.R., Rumisha, S.F., Sindato, C., Kimera, S.I. and Mboera, L.E.G. (2022) Comparative Assessment of the Human and Animal Health Surveillance Systems in Tanzania: Opportunities for an Integrated One Health Surveillance Platform. GlobalPublicHealth, 18, Article ID: 2110921. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2022.2110921
[66]
Mesa Varona, O., Chaintarli, K., Muller-Pebody, B., Anjum, M.F., Eckmanns, T., Norstr？m, M., et al. (2020) Monitoring Antimicrobial Resistance and Drug Usage in the Human and Livestock Sector and Foodborne Antimicrobial Resistance in Six European Countries. InfectionandDrugResistance, 13, 957-993. https://doi.org/10.2147/idr.s237038
[67]
Drewe, J.A., Hoinville, L.J., Cook, A.J.C., Floyd, T. and St？rk, K.D.C. (2012) Evaluation of Animal and Public Health Surveillance Systems: A Systematic Review. EpidemiologyandInfection, 140, 575-590. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0950268811002160
[68]
Fasina, F.O., Fasanmi, O.G., Makonnen, Y.J., Bebay, C., Bett, B. and Roesel, K. (2021) The One Health Landscape in Sub-Saharan African Countries. OneHealth, 13, Article ID: 100325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2021.100325
[69]
Chileshe, C., Goma, F., Mudenda, N.B., Mudenda, S., Sinyawa, T., Hadunka, M., et al. (2025) Development of the Zambian Standard Treatment Guidelines in the Animal Health Sector: A Key Step in Advancing Antimicrobial Stewardship. Antibiotics, 14, Article 1093. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14111093
[70]
Gray, P., Jenner, R., Norris, J., Page, S. and Browning, G. (2021) Antimicrobial Prescribing Guidelines for Poultry. AustralianVeterinaryJournal, 99, 181-235. https://doi.org/10.1111/avj.13034
