The two types of pre-European settlements of the Māori people are pā—a palisaded fortress, and kainga-unfortified settlements on flatland. Pā are normally located on strategically chosen sites where natural defence conditions, such as the top of a cliff or steep slope, headland or hilltop, are available. A well palisaded pā and unfortified or crudely palisaded kainga nearby are mutually dependant on each other for security and resources. The crops cultivated and wild food resources collected by the people of the kainga supplied both themselves and the pā, which offered protection during times of conflict. This paper examines how the relationship between pā and kainga in Māori culture can serve as a model for understanding the relationships between traditional fortified hilltop fortresses and nearby unfortified settlements in various regions, including Europe, Korea, and the Pacific Islands.
References
[1]
Best, E. (1924). The Māori as He Was: A brief Account of Māori Life as It Was in Pre-European Days. Dominion Museum.
[2]
Best, E. (1975 [1927]). The Pā Māori, an Account of the Fortified Villages of the Māori in Pre-European and Modern Times. Government Printer.
[3]
Best, E. (2001). Notes on the Art of War. Reed.
[4]
Cumberland, K. B. (1949). Aotearoa Maori: New Zealand about 1780. GeographicalReview,39, 401-424. https://doi.org/10.2307/210642
[5]
Cumberland, K. B. (1965a). The Māori. Whitcomber & Tombs Ltd.
[6]
Cumberland, K. B. (1965b). The Moahunter. Whitcomber & Tombs Ltd.
[7]
English, P. W. (1968). The Origin and Spread of Qanats in the Old World. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 112, 170-181. http://www.jstor.org/stable/986162
[8]
Firth, R. (1925). The Korekore Pa. Journal of the Polynesian Society, 34, 1-18.
[9]
Firth, R. (1927). Maori Hill-Forts. Antiquity, 1, 66-78. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00000077
[10]
Fox, A. (1976). Prehistorical Māori Fortifications in the North Island of New Zealand. Longman Pāul.
[11]
Fox, A. (1978). Maungakiekie, the Māori Pā on One Tree Hill. One Tree Hill Borough Council in Association with the Domain Board.
[12]
Green, R. C. (1976). Foreword. In A. Fox (Ed.), Prehistorical Māori Fortifications in the North Island of New Zealand (pp. 1-2). Longman Pāul.
[13]
Ki, K. (2017). Kogury？ Wangdo Y？n’gu (Study of Goguryeo’s Royal Capita). Ph.D. Thesis, Seoul National University.
[14]
Knight, I. (2009). Māori Fortifications (Illustrated by Adam Hook). Osprey Publishing.
[15]
Kohere, R. T. (1951). He Konae Aronui, Māori Proverbs and Sayings. A.H. & A.W. Reed.
[16]
Lewthwaite, G. R. (1983). Maungawhau and Maungakiekie: Reinterpreting the Cultural Landscape. YearbookoftheAssociationofPacificCoastGeographers,45, 25-42. https://doi.org/10.1353/pcg.1983.0003
[17]
Metge, J. (1967). The Maoris of New Zealand, Rutahi (Revised Edition, pp. 8-9). Routledge Kegan Paul.
[18]
Mikesell, M. W. (1978). Tradition and Innovation in Cultural Geography. AnnalsoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers,68, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1978.tb01176.x
[19]
Prickett, N. (1980). Māori Fortifications of the Omata and Oakura Districts, Taranaki. Records of the Auckland Institute and Museum, 17, 1-48. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42906284
[20]
Yang, S. E. (2013). A Study of the Fortress Defense System in Early Koguryo. Y？ngnamhak, 24, 41-86. https://doi.org/10.36034/yncdoi.2013..24.41
[21]
Yang, S. E. (2020). Onysans？ng’ui s？ngky？kkwa hwalyong y？ndae (Study of Wunu Mounntain fortress at Hengren). Hanguk Kogo-Hakbo, 115, 133-157.
[22]
Yi, P. (1987 [1983]). Samguksagi (Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms. Kogury？ Pon’ki (The Chronicles of Kogury？ dynasty) (Vol. 1).
[23]
Yoon, H. (2011). Human Modification of Korean Landforms for Geomantic Purposes. GeographicalReview,101, 243-260. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1931-0846.2011.00089.x
Yoon, H.-K. (2024b). Kogury？ chogi sans？ng chungsim’ui wangdo uny？ng cheche (Mountain Fortress as Capital City during the Early period of the Kogury？ history). Han’guk S？ngkwak Hakhoibo, 30, 215-249.
[26]
Yoon, H.-K. (2006). The Culture of Fengshui in Korea: An Exploration of East Asian Geomancy. Lexington Books.
