全部 标题 作者
关键词 摘要

OALib Journal期刊
ISSN: 2333-9721
费用:99美元

查看量下载量

相关文章

更多...

Navigating Environmental Concerns Confronting U.S. Data Centers Related to Water Quantity and Quality

DOI: 10.4236/jep.2026.174010, PP. 209-237

Keywords: Cooling, Consumption, Siting, Recycling, Regulation, Sustainability

Full-Text   Cite this paper   Add to My Lib

Abstract:

The rapid growth of data centers across the United States reflects the increasing demand for computing power in our society related to services such as cloud computing and artificial intelligence (AI). Along with the technological capability being supplied, data centers utilize a significant quantity of environmental resources. While power consumption typically receives primary focus, the utilization and impacts to water quality and quantity also deserve attention. More recently, concerns over water quality and quantity have created resistance and barriers to data center development. This review and analysis of the growth, status, and future trends related to water utilization by data centers provides the framework for recommendations that allow data center developers and operators to more smoothly and predictably navigate stakeholder concerns.

References

[1]  Ahmadi, V.E., Barestrand, H.A., Summers, J. and Yilmaz, C. (2026) Performance Evaluation of Two-Phase Direct-to-Chip Liquid Cooling Combined with Air Cooling for Data Centers. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, 78, Article ID: 107650.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2026.107650
[2]  Mytton, D. (2021) Data Centre Water Consumption. NPJ Clean Water, 4, Article No. 11.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-021-00101-w
[3]  Leppert, R. (2025) What We Know about Energy Use at U.S. Data Centers amid the AI Boom. Pew Research Center.
https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2025/10/24/what-we-know-about-energy-use-at-us-data-centers-amid-the-ai-boom/
[4]  Shehabi, A., et al. (2016) United States Data Center Energy Usage Report.
[5]  CommercialCafe (2025) U.S. Data Center Boom: Northern Virginia Leads, but Atlanta & Phoenix Closing In.
https://www.commercialcafe.com/blog/americas-data-center-boom/
[6]  Data Center Map.
https://www.datacentermap.com/usa/
[7]  American Public Power Association (2023) How Much Water Our Electricity Uses.
https://www.publicpower.org/periodical/article/how-much-water-our-electricity-uses
[8]  Water Resources Mission Area (2019) Thermoelectric Power Water Use.
https://www.usgs.gov/mission-areas/water-resources/science/thermoelectric-power-water-use
[9]  Louisiana Economic Development (2024) Meta Selects Northeast Louisiana as Site of $10 Billion Artificial Intelligence Optimized Data Center; Governor Jeff Landry Calls Investment “A New Chapter” for State.
https://www.opportunitylouisiana.gov/news/meta-selects-northeast-louisiana-as-site-of-10-billion-artificial-intelligence-optimized-data-center-governor-jeff-landry-calls-investment-a-new-chapter-for-state
[10]  Offutt, M.C., Zhu, L. and Lawson, A.J. (2026) Data Centers and Their Energy Consumption: Frequently Asked Questions.
https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/R/PDF/R48646/R48646.5.pdf
[11]  Patrick (2025) Understanding Data Center Server Rack Size: A Beginner’s Guide. Optcore.
https://www.optcore.net/data-center-server-rack-size-guide/
[12]  Datacenters.com Bare Metal (2025) kW per Rack Explained: Optimize Your Data Center.
https://www.datacenters.com/news/kw-per-rack-explained-optimize-your-data-center
[13]  Marcinichen, J.B., Olivier, J.A. and Thome, J.R. (2012) On-Chip Two-Phase Cooling of Datacenters: Cooling System and Energy Recovery Evaluation. Applied Thermal Engineering, 41, 36-51.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2011.12.008
[14]  Industry Trends News (2020) Data Center Cooling: The History and the Future. KSTAR.
https://www.kstar.eu/news/data-center-cooling-the-history-and-the-future.html
[15]  SIEMENS (n.d.) Hot Aisle/Cold Aisle Layout for Data Center Racks.
https://sid.siemens.com/v/u/A6V10729140
[16]  FEMP (2024) Best Practices Guide for Energy-Efficient Data Center Design.
[17]  Jonker, A. and Gomstyn, A. (2025) What Is an AI Data Center? IBM.
https://www.ibm.com/think/topics/ai-data-center
[18]  Bolgar, C. (2025) AI Chips Are Getting Hotter. A Microfluidics Breakthrough Goes Straight to the Silicon to Cool Up to Three Times Better. Microsoft.
https://news.microsoft.com/source/features/innovation/microfluidics-liquid-cooling-ai-chips/
[19]  Cho, J., Lim, T. and Kim, B.S. (2012) Viability of Datacenter Cooling Systems for Energy Efficiency in Temperate or Subtropical Regions: Case Study. Energy and Buildings, 55, 189-197.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.08.012
[20]  Daraghmeh, H.M. and Wang, C. (2017) A Review of Current Status of Free Cooling in Datacenters. Applied Thermal Engineering, 114, 1224-1239.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.10.093
[21]  He, Z., Smith, T.W., Lei, Z. and Dahi Taleghani, A. (2026) Repurposing Abandoned Mine Lands for Cooling Data Centers. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 225, Article ID: 108640.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2025.108640
[22]  Yin, P., Guo, Y., Zhang, M., Wang, J., Zhang, L., Feng, D., et al. (2024) Performance Analysis of Lake Water Cooling Coupled with a Waste Heat Recovery System in the Data Center. Sustainability, 16, Article No. 6542.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156542
[23]  Ristic, B., Madani, K. and Makuch, Z. (2015) The Water Footprint of Data Centers. Sustainability, 7, 11260-11284.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su70811260
[24]  Lei, N., Lu, J., Shehabi, A. and Masanet, E. (2025) The Water Use of Data Center Workloads: A Review and Assessment of Key Determinants. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 219, Article ID: 108310.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2025.108310
[25]  Siddik, M.A.B., Shehabi, A. and Marston, L. (2021) The Environmental Footprint of Data Centers in the United States. Environmental Research Letters, 16, Article ID: 064017.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abfba1
[26]  Xiao, T., Nerini, F.F., Matthews, H.D., Tavoni, M. and You, F. (2025) Environmental Impact and Net-Zero Pathways for Sustainable Artificial Intelligence Servers in the Usa. Nature Sustainability, 8, 1541-1553.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-025-01681-y
[27]  Cooling the Cloud: Water Utilities in a Data-Driven World.
[28]  BillTrack50 (2026) BillTrack50 Legislative Tracking Database.
https://www.billtrack50.com/account/search/bill
[29]  Yu, H.-C., Kuo, L. and Ma, B. (2020) The Drivers of Corporate Water Disclosure in Enhancing Information Transparency. Sustainability, 12, Article No. 385.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su12010385
[30]  Osaka, S. (2023) A New Front in the Water Wars: Thirsty, Giant Data Centers. The Washington Post.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2023/04/25/data-centers-drought-water-use/
[31]  Apple Inc. (2023) Environmental Progress Report: Covering Fiscal Year 2022. Apple Environmental Progress Report.
https://www.apple.com/environment/pdf/Apple_Environmental_Progress_Report_2023.pdf
[32]  Microsoft Corporation (2025) Microsoft Environmental Data Fact Sheet.
https://cdn-dynmedia-1.microsoft.com/is/content/microsoftcorp/microsoft/msc/documents/presentations/CSR/2025-Microsoft-Environmental-Sustainability-Report.pdf#page=01
[33]  Apple Inc. (2025) Environmental Progress Report: Covering Fiscal Year 2024. Apple Environmental Progress Report.
https://www.apple.com/environment/pdf/Apple_Environmental_Progress_Report_2025.pdf
[34]  Google LLC (2025) 2025 Environmental Report. Google Environmental Report.
https://www.gstatic.com/gumdrop/sustainability/google-2025-environmental-report.pdf
[35]  Google LLC (2024) 2024 Environmental Report. Google Environmental Report.
https://www.gstatic.com/gumdrop/sustainability/google-2024-environmental-report.pdf
[36]  Meta Platforms, Inc. (2025) Environmental Data Index: Reporting on Fiscal Year 2024. Meta Environmental Data Index.
https://sustainability.atmeta.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/10/Meta_2025-Environmental-Data-Index.pdf
[37]  Meta Platforms, Inc. (2024) Sustainability Report: Reporting on Fiscal Year 2023. Meta Sustainability Report.
https://sustainability.atmeta.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Meta-2024-Sustainability-Report.pdf
[38]  IEA (2025) Global Data Centre Electricity Consumption, by Equipment, Base Case, 2020-2030.
https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/global-data-centre-electricity-consumption-by-equipment-base-case-2020-2030
[39]  USEPA (2012) Guidelines for Water Reuse. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/R-12/618.
https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2019-08/documents/2012-guidelines-water-reuse.pdf
[40]  Azevedo, D., Belady, C. and Pouchet, J. (2011) WP#35—Water Usage Effectiveness (WUE): A Green Grid Data Center Sustainability Metric. The Green Grid.
https://www.thegreengrid.org/en/resources/library-and-tools/238-WP%2335---Water-Usage-Effectiveness-%28WUE%29%3A-A-Green-Grid-Data-Center-Sustainability-Metric
[41]  USEPA (1979) Part 125—Criteria and Standards for the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System. Vol. Title 40—Protection of Environment.
https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-40/chapter-I/subchapter-D/part-125
[42]  State of Michigan.
https://www.michigan.gov
[43]  Thilmany, E.A., Newton, S., Goeringer, P. and Rosenberg Goldstein, R.E. (2024) Reclaimed Water Use Regulations in the U.S.: Evaluating Changes and Regional Patterns in Patchwork State Policies from 2004-2023. Water, 16, Article No. 334.
https://doi.org/10.3390/w16020334
[44]  California State Water Resources Control Board (2024) Regulating Direct Potable Reuse in California. Government Report, California State Water Resources Control Board, Division of Drinking Water.
https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/drinking_water/certlic/drinkingwater/dpr-regs.html#:~:text=Background,Reasons%20(ISOR)%20provided%20below
[45]  ERN Staff (2026) Local Governments Limiting Data Center Growth as Public Opposition Mounts.
https://energy.policyplatform.news/energy/local-governments-limiting-data-center-growth-public-opposition-mounts
[46]  When A.I. Comes to Town: The Backlash Over Data Centers. New York Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/2026/02/16/podcasts/the-daily/ai-data-centers-backlash.html?showTranscript=1

Full-Text

Contact Us

service@oalib.com

QQ:3279437679

WhatsApp +8615387084133