Although gender differences in self-control and impulsivity have been well established, limited research has examined how gender roles are related to gender differences in self-control and impulsivity. We conducted two studies to test the hypothesis that gender role traits and attitudes will be able to account for gender differences in self-control, impulsivity, and impulsive behaviors. In Study 1 (n = 491), gender and gender role traits were used to predict self-control, impulsivity, restraint, and snooping in a romantic relationship. In Study 2 (n = 463), we added gender role attitudes to predict self-control, impulsivity, restraint, and drinking on top of gender and gender role traits. Findings across the two studies showed (1) a solid, replicable gender difference in impulsivity and a lesser gender difference in self-control but no significant gender difference in restraint; (2) masculine traits and attitudes but not feminine ones accounted for the gender difference in impulsivity; and (3) trait masculinity fully accounted for the gender differences in snooping and drinking. Additionally, Study 2 showed that gender role attitudes but not gender role traits accounted for the gender difference in self-control. These findings suggest that gender role traits and attitudes all make important but different contributions to the gender differences in self-control, impulsivity, and impulsive behaviors.
References
[1]
Archer, J. (1989). The Relationship between Gender‐Role Measures: A Review. BritishJournalofSocialPsychology,28, 173-184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1989.tb00858.x
[2]
Arciniega, G. M., Anderson, T. C., Tovar-Blank, Z. G., & Tracey, T. J. G. (2008). Toward a Fuller Conception of Machismo: Development of a Traditional Machismo and Caballerismo Scale. JournalofCounselingPsychology,55, 19-33. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.55.1.19
[3]
Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender Schema Theory: A Cognitive Account of Sex Typing. Psychological Review, 88, 354-364. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.88.4.354
[4]
Blackwell, B. S., & Piquero, A. R. (2005). On the Relationships between Gender, Power Control, Self-Control, and Crime. JournalofCriminalJustice,33, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2004.10.001
[5]
Bracic, A., Israel-Trummel, M., & Shortle, A. F. (2018). Is Sexism for White People? Gender Stereotypes, Race, and the 2016 Presidential Election. PoliticalBehavior,41, 281-307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9446-8
[6]
Burn, S. M., & Ward, A. Z. (2005). Men’s Conformity to Traditional Masculinity and Relationship Satisfaction. PsychologyofMen&Masculinity,6, 254-263. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.6.4.254
[7]
Buss, D. M. (2018). Sexual and Emotional Infidelity: Evolved Gender Differences in Jealousy Prove Robust and Replicable. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13, 155-160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617698225
[8]
Carver, C. S. (2005). Impulse and Constraint: Perspectives from Personality Psychology, Convergence with Theory in Other Areas, and Potential for Integration. PersonalityandSocialPsychologyReview,9, 312-333. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0904_2
[9]
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1982). Control Theory: A Useful Conceptual Framework for Personality—Social, Clinical, and Health Psychology. PsychologicalBulletin,92, 111-135. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.92.1.111
[10]
Chapple, C. L., & Johnson, K. A. (2007). Gender Differences in Impulsivity. YouthViolenceandJuvenileJustice,5, 221-234. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204007301286
[11]
Cheung, N.W.T., Cheung, Y.W. (2008). Self-Control, Social Factors, and Delinquency: A Test of the General Theory of Crime among Adolescents in Hong Kong. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 412-430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-007-9218-y
[12]
Chui, W. H., & Chan, H. C. (2016). The Gendered Analysis of Self-Control on Theft and Violent Delinquency: An Examination of Hong Kong Adolescent Population. Crime&Delinquency,62, 1648-1677. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128712470992
[13]
Clay, R. A. (2012). Redefining Masculinity. MonitoronPsychology,43, 52. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2012/06/masculinity
[14]
Connor, S., Edvardsson, K., Fisher, C., & Spelten, E. (2021). Perceptions and Interpretation of Contemporary Masculinities in Western Culture: A Systematic Review. AmericanJournalofMen’sHealth,15, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1177/15579883211061009
[15]
Constantinople, A. (1973). Masculinity-Femininity: An Exception to a Famous Dictum? PsychologicalBulletin,80, 389-407. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0035334
[16]
Cross, C. P., Copping, L. T., & Campbell, A. (2011). Sex Differences in Impulsivity: A Meta-Analysis. PsychologicalBulletin,137, 97-130. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021591
[17]
Daigle, L. E., & Mummert, S. J. (2014). Sex-Role Identification and Violent Victimization: Gender Differences in the Role of Masculinity. JournalofInterpersonalViolence,29, 255-278. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513505148
[18]
de Andrade, D., Taylor, N., Coomber, K., Ferris, J., Lowen, T., Litherland, S. et al. (2023). Impulsivity, Masculine Norms and Patron Pre-Drinking Levels in Queensland. AddictiveBehaviors,141, Article 107642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107642
[19]
Derby, K., Knox, D., & Easterling, B. (2012). Snooping in Romantic Relationships. CollegeStudentJournal,46, 333-343.
[20]
Dolliver, M. J., & Rocker, D. L. (2018). Addressing a Divide in the Conceptualization of the Gender-Crime Relationship: A Comparative Test of Gender and Sex Using General Strain Theory. Deviant Behavior, 39, 1552-1565. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2017.1410619
[21]
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2012). Social Role Theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), HandbookofTheoriesofSocialPsychology (pp. 458-476). SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n49
[22]
Gibson, C. L., Ward, J. T., Wright, J. P., Beaver, K. M., & Delisi, M. (2010). Where Does Gender Fit in the Measurement of Self-Control? CriminalJusticeandBehavior,37, 883-903. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854810369082
[23]
Gottfredson, M., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A General Theory of Crime. Stanford University Press.
[24]
Hagan, J., Simpson, J., & Gillis, A. R. (1988). Feminist Scholarship, Relational and Instrumental Control, and a Power-Control Theory of Gender and Delinquency. TheBritishJournalofSociology,39, 301-336. https://doi.org/10.2307/590481
[25]
Helms, H. M., Proulx, C. M., Klute, M. M., McHale, S. M., & Crouter, A. C. (2006). Spouses’ Gender-Typed Attributes and Their Links with Marital Quality: A Pattern Analytic Approach. JournalofSocialandPersonalRelationships,23, 843-864. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407506068266
[26]
Iwamoto, D. K., Cheng, A., Lee, C. S., Takamatsu, S., & Gordon, D. (2011). “Maning” up and Getting Drunk: The Role of Masculine Norms, Alcohol Intoxication and Alcohol-Related Problems among College Men. AddictiveBehaviors,36, 906-911. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2011.04.005
[27]
Kaya, A., Iwamoto, D. K., Grivel, M., Clinton, L., & Brady, J. (2016). The Role of Feminine and Masculine Norms in College Women’s Alcohol Use. PsychologyofMen&Masculinity,17, 206-214. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000017
[28]
Kilmartin, C., Addis, M. E., Mahalik, J. R., & O’Neil, J. M. (2013). Teaching the Psychology of Men: Four Experienced Professors Describe Their Courses. PsychologyofMen&Masculinity,14, 240-247. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033254
[29]
Kiselica, M. S., Benton-Wright, S., & Englar-Carlson, M. (2016). Accentuating Positive Masculinity: A New Foundation for the Psychology of Boys, Men, and Masculinity. In Y. J. Wong, & S. R. Wester (Eds.), APA Handbook of Men and Masculinities. (pp. 123-143). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14594-006
[30]
Lemle, R., & Mishkind, M. E. (1989). Alcohol and Masculinity. JournalofSubstanceAbuseTreatment,6, 213-222. https://doi.org/10.1016/0740-5472(89)90045-7
[31]
Lippa, R. A. (2001). On Deconstructing and Reconstructing Masculinity-Femininity. JournalofResearchinPersonality,35, 168-207. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.2000.2307
[32]
Litman, J. A., & Pezzo, M. V. (2007). Dimensionality of Interpersonal Curiosity. PersonalityandIndividualDifferences,43, 1448-1459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.04.021
[33]
Maloney, P. W., Grawitch, M. J., & Barber, L. K. (2012). The Multi-Factor Structure of the Brief Self-Control Scale: Discriminant Validity of Restraint and Impulsivity. JournalofResearchinPersonality,46, 111-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2011.10.001
[34]
Mason, W. A., & Windle, M. (2002). Gender, Self-Control, and Informal Social Control in Adolescence: A Test of Three Models of the Continuity of Delinquency Behavior. Youth&Society,33, 479-514. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118x02033004001
[35]
Miller, S. L., & Burack, C. (1993). A Critique of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s General Theory of Crime: Selective (in)Attention to Gender and Power Position. Women&CriminalJustice,4, 115-134. https://doi.org/10.1300/j012v04n02_07
[36]
Mosher, D. L., & Sirkin, M. (1984). Measuring a Macho Personality Constellation. JournalofResearchinPersonality,18, 150-163. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(84)90026-6
[37]
Nofziger, S. (2010). A Gendered Perspective on the Relationship between Self-Control and Deviance. FeministCriminology,5, 29-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085109353892
[38]
Oppenheim, I., Oron-Gilad, T., Parmet, Y., & Shinar, D. (2016). Can Traffic Violations Be Traced to Gender-Role, Sensation Seeking, Demographics and Driving Exposure? TransportationResearchPartF:TrafficPsychologyandBehaviour,43, 387-395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2016.06.027
[39]
Öztürk, İ., Özkan, Ö., & Öz, B. (2021). Investigating Sex, Masculinity and Femininity in Relation to Impulsive Driving and Driving Anger Expression. TransportationResearchPartF:TrafficPsychologyandBehaviour,81, 14-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2021.05.009
[40]
Parent, M. C., & Moradi, B. (2009). Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory and Development of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46. PsychologyofMen&Masculinity,10, 175-189. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015481
[41]
Parrott, D. J., & Zeichner, A. (2003). Effects of Hypermasculinity Oh Physical Aggression against Women. PsychologyofMen&Masculinity,4, 70-78. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.4.1.70
[42]
Rahav, G., Wilsnack, R., Bloomfield, K., Gmel, G., & Kuntsche, S. (2006). The Influence of Societal Level Factors on Men’s and Women’s Alcohol Consumption and Alcohol Problems. AlcoholandAlcoholism,41, i47-i55. https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agl075
[43]
Rochlen, A. B., & Mahalik, J. R. (2004). Women’s Perceptions of Male Partners’ Gender Role Conflict as Predictors of Psychological Well-Being and Relationship Satisfaction. PsychologyofMen&Masculinity,5, 147-157. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.5.2.147
[44]
Scelza, B. A., Prall, S. P., Blumenfield, T., Crittenden, A. N., Gurven, M., Kline, M. et al. (2020). Patterns of Paternal Investment Predict Cross-Cultural Variation in Jealous Response. NatureHumanBehaviour,4, 20-26. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-019-0654-y
[45]
Stoltenberg, S. F., Batien, B. D., & Birgenheir, D. G. (2008). Does Gender Moderate Associations among Impulsivity and Health-Risk Behaviors? AddictiveBehaviors,33, 252-265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.09.004
[46]
Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. (2004). High Self‐Control Predicts Good Adjustment, Less Pathology, Better Grades, and Interpersonal Success. JournalofPersonality,72, 271-324. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00263.x
[47]
Tetering, M. A. J. v., Laan, A. M. v. d., Kogel, C. H. d., Groot, R. H. M. d., & Jolles, J. (2020). Sex Differences in Self-Regulation in Early, Middle and Late Adolescence: A Large-Scale Cross-Sectional Study. PLOSONE,15, e0227607. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227607
[48]
Van Gundy, K., Schieman, S., Kelley, M. S., & Rebellon, C. J. (2005). Gender Role Orientations and Alcohol Use among Moscow and Toronto Adults. SocialScience&Medicine,61, 2317-2330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.07.033
[49]
Viki, G. T., Abrams, D., & Hutchison, P. (2003). The “True” Romantic: Benevolent Sexism and Paternalistic Chivalry. Sex Roles, 49, 533-537. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1025888824749
[50]
Vinkers, C. D. W., Finkenauer, C., & Hawk, S. T. (2011). Why Do Close Partners Snoop? Predictors of Intrusive Behavior in Newlywed Couples. PersonalRelationships,18, 110-124. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01314.x
[51]
Wade, J. C., & Donis, E. (2007). Masculinity Ideology, Male Identity, and Romantic Relationship Quality among Heterosexual and Gay Men. SexRoles,57, 775-786. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9303-4
[52]
Weafer, J., & de Wit, H. (2014). Sex Differences in Impulsive Action and Impulsive Choice. AddictiveBehaviors,39, 1573-1579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.10.033
[53]
Wu, H., Luo, S., Klettner, A., White, T., & Albritton, K. (2021). Gender Roles in the Millennium: Who Pays and Is Expected to Pay for Romantic Dates? Psychological Reports, 126, 791-811. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941211057144
[54]
Zhang, J., Norvilitis, J. M., & Jin, S. (2001). Measuring Gender Orientation with the Bem Sex Role Inventory in Chinese Culture. SexRoles,44, 237-251. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1010911305338
