Microbiological Characterization of Irrigation Water and Risk Assessment for Rice Production: Application of the Biological Quality Index (IBQ6) in the M’Bahiakro Irrigated Agricultural Perimeter (Central-Eastern C？te d’Ivoire)
Assessing the microbiological quality of irrigation water is essential for ensuring the proper functioning of irrigated agricultural areas and securing optimal rice production yields. This study aims to evaluate the microbiological quality of irrigation water and the potential risks it poses to rice cultivation in M’Bahiakro. The adopted methodology involved identifying microbial pollution indicators such as total coliforms, fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, and fecal streptococci. Water samples were collected from three (03) monitoring stations during both the dry and rainy seasons. The qualitative and quantitative identification of these microorganisms was performed by filtering 100 mL of water through a cellulose membrane filter (MF) with a uniform pore diameter of 0.45 μm. The risk to rice production was assessed using the IBQ6 index method. Results revealed high contamination levels in the irrigation water, characterized by elevated loads of total and fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, and E. coli, both upstream and downstream of the dam, thereby exposing rice farming to significant health and agronomic risks. This microbial pollution is exacerbated during the dry season, when the IBQ6 scores indicate poor water quality (34 - 35/100), threatening both crop yields and farmers’ health. A slight improvement is observed during the rainy season due to dilution effects (IBQ6: 54 - 63/100), although the water quality remains insufficient to ensure sustainable irrigation. Furthermore, high concentrations of nutrients such as phosphorus and ammonia intensify anthropogenic pressure and the risks of eutrophication. These findings underscore the need for integrated water resource management, including pollution source control, community awareness initiatives, and the implementation of ecological or physical barriers to limit the spread of pathogens.
References
[1]
Alegbeleye, O.O. and Sant’Ana, A.S. (2020) Manure-Borne Pathogens as an Important Source of Water Contamination: An Update on the Dynamics of Pathogen Survival/Transport as Well as Practical Risk Mitigation Strategies. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 227, Article ID: 113524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113524
[2]
Ubah, J.I., Orakwe, L.C., Ogbu, K.N., Awu, J.I., Ahaneku, I.E. and Chukwuma, E.C. (2021) Forecasting Water Quality Parameters Using Artificial Neural Network for Irrigation Purposes. Scientific Reports, 11, Article No. 24438. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-04062-5
[3]
Rodier, J. (2009) L’Analyse de l’Eau: Eaux Naturelles, Eaux Résiduaires, Eau de Mer. 9th Edition, Dunod, 100-110.
[4]
Jeong, H., Kim, H. and Jang, T. (2016) Irrigation Water Quality Standards for Indirect Wastewater Reuse in Agriculture: A Contribution toward Sustainable Wastewater Reuse in South Korea. Water, 8, Article No. 169. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8040169
[5]
DeNicola, E., Aburizaiza, O.S., Siddique, A., Siddique, A., Khwaja, H. and Carpenter, D.O. (2015) Climate Change and Water Scarcity: The Case of Saudi Arabia. Annals of Global Health, 81, 342-353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2015.08.005
[6]
Djegbe, I., Tamou-Tabe, T.S., Topanou, N., Soglo, F.M., Paraiso, A., Djouaka, R., et al. (2018) Variation saisonnière de la qualité physicochimique et microbiologique des eaux d’irrigation et des légumes du site maraîcher de Bawéra et risques sanitaires associés. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 12, 781-795. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v12i2.13
[7]
Koffi-Nevry, R., Assi-Clair, B.J., Assemand, E.F., Wognin, A.S. and Koussemon, M. (2012) Origin of Fecal Contamination Controls in Watering Laitue (Lactuca sativa) Grown in the Peri-Urban Area of Abidjan. Journal of Applied Biosciences, 52, 3669-3675.
[8]
Anoman, T.M., Voko, D.R.B., Doga, D., Kouadio, A.N.M.S., Ahoudjo, K.S. and Zeze, A. (2021) Monitoring the Influence of Anthropogenic Pollution on the Quality of Irrigation Water for Market Gardening in Yamoussoukro, Côte D’ivoire. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research, 55, 715-720. https://doi.org/10.18805/ijare.a-586
[9]
Kanohin, F., Otchoumou, E., Yapo, O.B., Dibi, B. and Bonny, A.C. (2018) Physicochemical and Bacteriological Characterization of Bingerville Groundwater. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 11, 2495-2509. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v11i5.43
[10]
Wognin, A.S., Traoré, S.G., Kpidi, Y.H., Adon, T.P. and Yapo, O.B. (2024) Niveau de contamination physico-chimique et bactériologique des eaux du fleuve Bandama (Côte d’ivoire). Journal of Applied Biosciences, 193, 20513-20524. https://doi.org/10.35759/jabs.193.6
[11]
Baï, R., Kouame, I.K., Kouassı, L.K., Konan, S.K. and N’Cho, H.A. (2019) Assessment of the Physicochemical Quality of Irrigation Water and Soil for Sustainable Irrigated Rice Cultivation: Case of Irrigated Perimeter of M’bahiakro (Central-East of Côte d’Ivoire). Journal of Environmental Protection, 10, 1536-1552. https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2019.1011091
[12]
N’cho, H.A., Kouame, I.K., Koff, K., Kouassı, L.K., Konan, S.K., Baï, R., et al. (2020) Study of the Hydro-Chemical and Bacteriological Well Water Characteristics of M’bahiakro (Central-Eastern Côte D’ivoire). Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection, 8, 32-46. https://doi.org/10.4236/gep.2020.84003
[13]
N’cho, H.A., Baï, R., N’Goran, E.K., Koffı, K., Kouassı, L.K. and Kouamé, I.K. (2025) Assessment of Health Risks Associated with Nitrate in Drinking Well Water: Case Study, M’Bahiakro (Central-Eastern Côte d’Ivoire). Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 17, 35-46. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2025.171003
[14]
Saloua, B., Abdelilah, R., Lahsen, C., Soumaya, H. and Elhassan, A. (2017) Evaluation of Biological Water Quality by Biological Macrophytic Index in River: Application on the Watershed of Beht River. European Scientific Journal, 13, 217.
[15]
Kouassi, L.K., Kouamé, I.K., Konan, S.K., Dibi, B., Moussa, S., Koné, D., et al. (2013) Prospects for Minimizing the Potential Environmental Impacts of the Hydro-Agricultural Dam of M’bahiakro (Côte D’ivoire). Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 5, 847-853. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2013.59085
[16]
Hébert, S. (1997) Développement d’un indice de la qualité bactériologique et physico-chimique de l’eau pour les rivières du Québec. Ministère de l’Environnement et de la Faune, Direction des écosystèmes aquatiques, Envirodoq EN/970102, 20 p. + annexes.
[17]
Ministère de l’Environnement et de la Lutte contre les changements climatiques (2022) Guide d’interprétation de l’indice de la qualité bactériologique et physicochimique de l’eau (IQBP5 et IQBP6). 21 p. http://www.environnement.gouv.qc.ca/eau/eco_aqua/suivi_mil-aqua/guide-interpretation-indice-qualite-bacteriologique-physicochimique-eau.pdf
[18]
Drechsel, P., Blumenthal, U.J. and Keraita, B. (2002) Balancing Health and Livelihoods: Adjusting Wastewater Irrigation Guidelines for Resource-Poor Countries. Urban Agriculture Magazine, 8, 7-9.
[19]
Organisation mondiale de la santé (OMS) (2006) Utilisation des excréments et des eaux grises dans l’agriculture. Dans les excréments et les eaux grises; Lignes directrices pour l’utilisation sécuritaire des eaux usées; Organisation mondiale de la santé: Genève, Suisse Volume 4.
[20]
Kambire, O., Yao, K.M., Aka, N., Bamba, K.E. and Koffi-Nevry, R. (2022) Microbiological and Physicochemical Characterization of Irrigation Water in Market Gardening in Korhogo. The Scientific World Journal, 2022, Article ID: 3167581. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3167581
[21]
Camargo, J.A. and Alonso, A. (2007) Contaminación por nitrógeno inorgánico en los ecosistemas acuáticos: Problemas medioambientales, criterios de calidad del agua, e implicaciones del cambio climático. Ecosistema, 16, 98-110.
[22]
Rebolledo, M. A., Del Ángel, P.A.L., Megchún, G.J.V., Adame, G.J., Nataren, V.J. and Capetillo, B. A. (2011) Coberteras vivas para el manejo de malezas en mango (Mangifera indica L.) cv. Manila. Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosistemas, 13, 327-338.
[23]
Duarte, I.M., Marques, H., Amador, P., Vasconcelos, T. and Gonçalves, J.M. (2022) Evaluation of the Microbiological Quality of Water in the Rice-Growing System of the Lis Valley, Portugal. Applied Sciences, 12, Article No. 9856. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12199856
[24]
Hagedorn, C., Robinson, S.L., Filtz, J.R., Grubbs, S.M., Angier, T.A. and Reneau, R.B. (1999) Determining Sources of Fecal Pollution in a Rural Virginia Watershed with Antibiotic Resistance Patterns in Fecal Streptococci. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 65, 5522-5531. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.65.12.5522-5531.1999
[25]
Jamieson, R.C., Gordon, R.J., Tattrie, S.C. and Stratton, G.W. (2003) Sources and Persistence of Fecal Coliform Bacteria in a Rural Watershed. Water Quality Research Journal, 38, 33-47. https://doi.org/10.2166/wqrj.2003.004
[26]
Donkor, E.S., Lanyo, R., Kayang, B.B., Quaye, J. and Edoh, A.D. (2010) Internalisation of Microbes in Vegetables: Microbial Load of Ghanaian Vegetables and the Relationship with Different Water Sources of Irrigation. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 13, 857-861. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2010.857.861
[27]
Cabral, J.P. and Marques, C. (2006) Faecal Coliform Bacteria in Febros River (Northwest Portugal): Temporal Variation, Correlation with Water Parameters, and Species Identification. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 118, 21-36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-006-0771-8
[28]
Divya, A.H. and Solomon, P.A. (2016) Effects of Some Water Quality Parameters Especially Total Coliform and Fecal Coliform in Surface Water of Chalakudy River. Procedia Technology, 24, 631-638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2016.05.151
[29]
Odonkor, S.T. and Ampofo, J.K. (2013) Escherichia coli as an Indicator of Bacteriological Quality of Water: An Overview. Microbiology Research, 4, e2. https://doi.org/10.4081/mr.2013.e2
[30]
Khan, F.M. and Gupta, R. (2020) Escherichia coli (E. coli) as an Indicator of Fecal Contamination in Groundwater: A Review. In: Jeon, H.-Y., Ed., Sustainable Development of Water and Environment, Springer International Publishing, 225-235. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45263-6_21
[31]
Bouman, B.A.M., Lampayan, R.M. and Tuong, T.P. (2007) Water Management in Irrigated Rice: Coping with Water Scarcity. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 54 p.
