全部 标题 作者
关键词 摘要

OALib Journal期刊
ISSN: 2333-9721
费用:99美元

查看量下载量

相关文章

更多...
PLOS Biology  2015 

Resolving Conflicts between Agriculture and the Natural Environment

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002242

Full-Text   Cite this paper   Add to My Lib

Abstract:

Agriculture dominates the planet. Yet it has many environmental costs that are unsustainable, especially as global food demand rises. Here, we evaluate ways in which different parts of the world are succeeding in their attempts to resolve conflict between agriculture and wild nature. We envision that coordinated global action in conserving land most sensitive to agricultural activities and policies that internalise the environmental costs of agriculture are needed to deliver a more sustainable future.

References

[1]  Tilman D, Balzer C, Hill J, Befort BL (2011) Global food demand and the sustainable intensification of agriculture. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108: 20260–20264. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1116437108. pmid:22106295
[2]  Warren J, Lawson C, Belcher K (2007) The agri-environment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 232 p.
[3]  Foley JA, Ramankutty N, Brauman KA, Cassidy ES, Gerber JS, et al. (2011) Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature 478: 337–342. doi: 10.1038/nature10452. pmid:21993620
[4]  Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystems and human well-being: synthesis. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute; 2005. 155 p.
[5]  James AN, Gaston KJ, Balmford A (1999) Balancing the Earth’s accounts. Nature 401: 323–324. pmid:16862091 doi: 10.1038/43774
[6]  Myers N, Kent J (2001) Perverse subsidies: how tax dollars can undercut the environment and the economy. Washington, DC: Island Press. 277 p.
[7]  Ramankutty N, Evan AT, Monfreda C, Foley JA. (2008) Farming the planet: 1. Geographic distribution of global agricultural lands in the year 2000. Global Biogeochem Cycles 22: GB1003. doi: 10.1029/2007gb002952
[8]  Lawton JH (2007) Ecology, politics and policy. J Appl Ecol 44: 465–474. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01315.x
[9]  Lambin EF, Meyfroidt P (2011) Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108: 3465–3472. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1100480108. pmid:21321211
[10]  Kissinger G, Herold M, de Sy V (2012) Drivers of deforestation and forest degradation: a synthesis report for REDD+ policymakers. Lexeme Consulting, Vancouver. 46 p.
[11]  International Union for Conservation of Nature [IUCN] (2014) The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. via the Internet. Accessed 2015 March 14.
[12]  Bondeau A, Smith PC, Zaehle S, Schaphoff S, Lucht W, et al. (2007) Modelling the role of agriculture for the 20th century global terrestrial carbon balance. Glob Chang Biol 13: 679–706. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01305.x
[13]  Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [FAO]. (2015) AQUASTAT database.
[14]  Bouwman L, Goldewijk KK, Hoek KWVD, Beusen AHW, Van Vuuren DP, et al. (2013) Exploring global changes in nitrogen and phosphorus cycles in agriculture induced by livestock production over the 1900–2050 period. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110: 20882–20887. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1012878108. pmid:21576477
[15]  Galloway JN, Aber JD, Erisman JW, Seitzinger SP, Howarth RW, et al. (2003) The nitrogen cascade. BioScience 53: 341–356. doi: 10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[0341:tnc]2.0.co;2
[16]  Diaz RJ, Rosenberg R (2008) Spreading dead zones and consequences for marine ecosystems. Science 321: 926–929. doi: 10.1126/science.1156401. pmid:18703733
[17]  MacDonald GK, Bennett EM, Potter PA, Ramankutty N (2011) Agronomic phosphorus imbalances across the world’s croplands. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108: 3086–3091. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1010808108. pmid:21282605
[18]  Rohr JR, Schotthoefer AM, Raffel TR, Carrick HJ, Halstead N, et al. (2008) Agrochemicals increase trematode infections in a declining amphibian species. Nature 455: 1235–1239 doi: 10.1038/nature07281. pmid:18972018
[19]  Henry M, Béguin M, Requier F, Rollin O, Odoux J-F, et al. (2012) A common pesticide decreases foraging success and survival in honey bees. Science 336: 348–350. doi: 10.1126/science.1215039. pmid:22461498
[20]  Hallmann CA, Foppen RPB, van Turnhout CAM, de Kroon H, Jongejans E (2014) Declines in insectivorous birds are associated with high neonicotinoid concentrations. Nature 511: 341–343. doi: 10.1038/nature13531. pmid:25030173
[21]  Priester JH, Ge Y, Mielke RE, Horst AM, Moritz SC, et al. (2012) Soybean susceptibility to manufactured nanomaterials with evidence for food quality and soil fertility interruption. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109: E2451–E2456. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1205431109. pmid:22908279
[22]  Santiago-Martín A, Constantin B, Guesdon G, Kagambega N, Raymond S, et al. (2015) Bioavailability of engineered nanoparticles in soil systems. J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste in press. doi: 10.1061/(asce)hz.2153-5515.0000263
[23]  Pimentel D, Harvey C, Resosudarmo P, Sinclair K, Kurz D, et al (1995) Environmental and economic costs of soil erosion and conservation benefits. Science 267: 1117–1123. pmid:17789193 doi: 10.1126/science.267.5201.1117
[24]  Lal R (1997) Degradation and resilience of soils. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 352: 997–1010. doi: 10.1098/rstb.1997.0078
[25]  West PC, Gerber JS, Engstrom PM, Mueller ND, Brauman KA, Carlson KM, et al. (2014) Leverage points for improving global food security and the environment. Science 345: 325–328. doi: 10.1126/science.1246067. pmid:25035492
[26]  Ruhl JB (2000) Farms, their environmental harms, and environmental law. Ecol Law Q 27: 263–349. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.186848
[27]  Walker S, Brower AL, Stephens RTT, Lee WG (2009) Why bartering biodiversity fails. Conserv Lett 2: 149–157. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-263x.2009.00061.x
[28]  Olson M (1965) The logic of collective action. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 208 p.
[29]  Daugbjerg C, Swinbank A (2012) An introduction to the “new” politics of agriculture and food. Policy Soc 31: 259–270. doi: 10.1016/j.polsoc.2012.10.002
[30]  Eskridge WN Jr (1988) Politics without romance: implications of public choice theory for statutory interpretation. Va Law Rev 74: 275–338. doi: 10.2307/1073145
[31]  Bellemare MF, Carnes N (2015) Why do members of congress support agricultural protection? Food Policy 50: 20–34. doi: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2014.10.010
[32]  Grant WP (2012) Can political science contribute to agricultural policy? Policy Soc 31: 271–279. doi: 10.1016/j.polsoc.2012.09.001
[33]  Burson-Marsteller (2013) A guide to effective lobbying in Europe: the view of policy-makers.
[34]  Meyfroidt P, Rudel TK, Lambin EF (2010) Forest transitions, trade, and the global displacement of land use. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107: 20917–20922. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1014773107. pmid:21078977
[35]  Balmford A, Green R, Phalan B (2012) What conservationists need to know about farming. Proc Roy Soc B 279: 2714–2724. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2012.0515
[36]  Merckx T, Pereira HM (2015) Reshaping agri-environmental subsidies: From marginal farming to large-scale rewilding. Basic and Applied Ecology 16: 95–103. doi: 10.1016/j.baae.2014.12.003
[37]  Lastra-Bravo XB, Hubbard C, Garrod G, Tolón-Becerra A (2015) What drives farmers’ participation in EU agri-environmental schemes? Results from a qualitative meta-analysis. Environmental Science & Policy 54: 1–9. doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2015.06.002
[38]  Wilson GA, Hart K (2000) Financial imperative or conservation concern? EU farmers’ motivations for participation in voluntary agri-environmental schemes. Environment and Planning A 32: 2161–2185. doi: 10.1068/a3311
[39]  Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD] (2004) Agriculture and the environment: lessons learned from a decade of OECD work. Paris: OECD. 36 p.
[40]  Nepstad D, McGrath D, Stickler C, Alencar A, Azevedo A, et al. (2014) Slowing Amazon deforestation through public policy and interventions in beef and soy supply chains. Science 344: 1118–1123. doi: 10.1126/science.1248525. pmid:24904156
[41]  European Court of Auditors (2008) Is cross compliance an effective policy? Special report no 8/2008. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 57 p.
[42]  Curtis A, Lockwood M (2000) Landcare and catchment management in Australia: lessons for state-sponsored community participation. Soc Nat Resour 13: 61–73. doi: 10.1080/089419200279243
[43]  OECD (2013) Providing agri-environmental public goods through collective action. Paris: OECD. 306 p.
[44]  Curtis A, Lacy TD (1998) Landcare, stewardship and sustainable agriculture in Australia. Environ Values 7: 59–78. doi: 10.3197/096327198129341474
[45]  Pannell DJ, Marshall GR, Barr N, Curtis A, Vanclay F, et al. (2006) Understanding and promoting adoption of conservation practices by rural landholders. Aust J Exp Agric 46: 1407–1424. doi: 10.1071/ea05037
[46]  Stubbs M (2014) Conservation Reserve Program (CRP): status and issues. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. 24 p.
[47]  United States Department of Agriculture (2011) CRP benefits. via the Internet. Accessed 14 March 2015.
[48]  Wu J (2000) Slippage effects of the conservation reserve program. Am J Agric Econ 82: 979–992. doi: 10.1111/0002-9092.00096
[49]  Franks JR, McGloin A (2007) Joint submissions, output related payments and environmental co-operatives: Can the Dutch experience innovate UK agri-environment policy? Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 50: 233–256. doi: 10.1080/09640560601156482
[50]  Sotherton NW (1998) Land use changes and the decline of farmland wildlife: An appraisal of the set-aside approach. Biol Conserv 83: 259–268. doi: 10.1016/s0006-3207(97)00082-7
[51]  Robinson GM, Lind M (1999) Set-Aside and environment: a case study in southern England. Tijdschr Econ Soc Geogr 90: 296–311. doi: 10.1111/1467-9663.00071
[52]  Weeks ES, Walker SF, Dymond JR, Shepherd JD, Clarkson BD (2012) Patterns of past and recent conversion of indigenous grasslands in the South Island, New Zealand. N Z J Ecol 37: 127–138.
[53]  Caro D, Davis SJ, Bastianoni S, Caldeira K (2014) Global and regional trends in greenhouse gas emissions from livestock. Climatic Change 126: 203–216. doi: 10.1007/s10584-014-1197-x
[54]  Brown MA, Clarkson BD, Stephens RT, Barton BJ (2014) Compensating for ecological harm–the state of play in New Zealand. N Z J Ecol 38: 139–146.
[55]  Brown MA, Stephens RTT, Peart R, Fedder B (2015) Vanishing nature: facing New Zealand’s biodiversity crisis. Auckland: Environmental Defence Society. 208 p.
[56]  Forest & Bird (2013) 2013 Annual Report. via the Internet. Accessed 14 March 2015.
[57]  Abler D (2004) Multifunctionality, agricultural policy, and environmental policy. Agricultural and Resource Economics Review 33: 8–17.
[58]  Plantinga AJ (1996) the effect of agricultural policies on land use and environmental quality. Am J Agr Econ 78: 1082–1091. doi: 10.2307/1243864
[59]  MacDonald GK, Brauman KA, Sun S, Carlson KM, Cassidy ES, Gerber JS, et al. (2015) Rethinking agricultural trade relationships in an era of globalization. BioScience 65: 275–289. doi: 10.1093/biosci/biu225
[60]  Rudel TK, Schneider L, Uriarte M, Turner BL, DeFries R, Lawrence D, et al. (2009) Agricultural intensification and changes in cultivated areas, 1970–2005. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106: 20675–20680 doi: 10.1073/pnas.0812540106. pmid:19955435
[61]  Murray BC (2008) Leakage from an avoided deforestation compensation policy: concepts, empirical evidence, and corrective policy options. Raleigh: Nicholas Institution for Environmental Policy Solutions. 32 p.
[62]  Pe’er G, Dicks LV, Visconti P, Arlettaz R, Báldi A, et al. (2014) EU agricultural reform fails on biodiversity. Science 344:1090–1092. doi: 10.1126/science.1253425. pmid:24904142
[63]  Pretty JN, Brett C, Gee D, Hine RE, Mason CF, et al. (2000) An assessment of the total external costs of UK agriculture. Agric Syst 65: 113–136. doi: 10.1016/s0308-521x(00)00031-7
[64]  Pretty J, Brett C, Gee D, Hine RE, Mason CF, et al. (2001) Policy challenges and priorities for internalizing the externalities of modern agriculture. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 44: 263–283. doi: 10.1080/09640560123782
[65]  Balmford A, Bruner A, Cooper P, Costanza R, Farber S, et al. (2002) Economic reasons for conserving wild nature. Science 297: 950–953. pmid:12169718 doi: 10.1126/science.1073947
[66]  Kleijn D, Sutherland WJ (2003) How effective are European agri-environment schemes in conserving and promoting biodiversity? J Appl Ecol 40: 947–969. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2003.00868.x
[67]  Kleijn D, Baquero RA, Clough Y, Díaz M, De Esteban J, et al. (2006) Mixed biodiversity benefits of agri-environment schemes in five European countries. Ecol Lett 9: 243–254. pmid:16958888 doi: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00869.x
[68]  Whittingham MJ (2007) Will agri-environment schemes deliver substantial biodiversity gain, and if not why not? J Appl Ecol 44: 1–5. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2006.01263.x
[69]  Baker DJ, Freeman SN, Grice PV, Siriwardena GM (2012) Landscape-scale responses of birds to agri-environment management: a test of the English Environmental Stewardship scheme. J Appl Ecol 49: 871–882. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02161.x
[70]  Kleijn D, Berendse F, Smit R, Gilissen N (2001) Agri-environment schemes do not effectively protect biodiversity in Dutch agricultural landscapes. Nature 413: 723–725. pmid:11607029 doi: 10.1038/35099540
[71]  Vickery JA, Bradbury RB, Henderson IG, Eaton MA, Grice PV (2004) The role of agri-environment schemes and farm management practices in reversing the decline of farmland birds in England. Biol Conserv 119: 19–39. doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2003.06.004
[72]  State Forestry Administration of China (2014) Forestry in China. via the Internet. Accessed 14 March 2015.
[73]  Liu J, Li S, Ouyang Z, Tam C, Chen X (2008) Ecological and socioeconomic effects of China’s policies for ecosystem services. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105: 9477–9482 doi: 10.1073/pnas.0706436105. pmid:18621700
[74]  National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China. (2014) China’s legislature adopts revised Environmental Protection Law. via the Internet. Accessed 14 March 2015.
[75]  Sun B, Zhang L, Yang L, Zhang F, Norse D, et al. (2012) Agricultural non-point source pollution in china: causes and mitigation measures. Ambio 41: 370–379. doi: 10.1007/s13280-012-0249-6. pmid:22311715
[76]  Zhang W, Dou Z, He P, Ju X-T, Powlson D, et al. (2013) New technologies reduce greenhouse gas emissions from nitrogenous fertilizer in China. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110: 8375–8380. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1210447110. pmid:23671096
[77]  Ju X-T, Xing G-X, Chen X-P, Zhang S-L, Zhang L-J et al. (2009) Reducing environmental risk by improving N management in intensive Chinese agricultural systems. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106: 3041–3046. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0813417106. pmid:19223587
[78]  OECD (2015) Producer and consumer support estimates database. Available via the Internet. Accessed 14 March 2015.
[79]  Hodgson JA, Kunin WE, Thomas CD, Benton TG, Gabriel D (2010) Comparing organic farming and land sparing: optimizing yield and butterfly populations at a landscape scale. Ecol Lett 13:1358–1367. doi: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01528.x. pmid:20825453
[80]  Phalan B, Onial M, Balmford A, Green RE (2011) Reconciling food production and biodiversity conservation: land sharing and land sparing compared. Science 333: 1289–1291. doi: 10.1126/science.1208742. pmid:21885781
[81]  Godfray HCJ, Garnett T (2014) Food security and sustainable intensification. Phil Trans R Soc Lond 369: 20120273. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2012.0273
[82]  Fischer J, Abson DJ, Butsic V, Chappell MJ, Ekroos J, Hanspach J, et al. (2014) Land sparing versus land sharing: moving forward. Conserv Lett 7: 149–157. doi: 10.1111/conl.12084
[83]  Frishkoff LO, Karp DS, M’Gonigle LK, Mendenhall CD, Zook J, Kremen C, et al. (2014) Loss of avian phylogenetic diversity in neotropical agricultural systems. Science 345: 1343–1346. doi: 10.1126/science.1254610. pmid:25214627
[84]  Mueller ND, Gerber JS, Johnston M, Ray DK, Ramankutty N, et al. (2012) Closing yield gaps through nutrient and water management. Nature 490: 254–257. doi: 10.1038/nature11420. pmid:22932270
[85]  Alix-Garcia JM, Shapiro EN, Sims KRE (2012) Forest conservation and slippage: evidence from Mexico’s national payments for ecosystem services program. Land Econ 88: 613–638. doi: 10.3368/le.88.4.613
[86]  Stavins RN, Whitehead BW (1992) Pollution charges for environmental protection: a policy link between energy and environment. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 17: 187–210. doi: 10.1146/annurev.energy.17.1.187
[87]  Newson SE, Johnston A, Renwick AR, Baillie SR, Fuller RJ (2012) Modelling large-scale relationships between changes in woodland deer and bird populations. J Appl Ecol 49: 278–286. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02077.x
[88]  Chamberlain D E, Fuller RJ, Bunce RGH, Duckworth JC, Shrubb M (2000) Changes in the abundance of farmland birds in relation to the timing of agricultural intensification in England and Wales. J Appl Ecol 37: 771–788. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2664.2000.00548.x
[89]  Baj?elj B, Richards KS, Allwood JM, Smith P, Dennis JS, et al. (2014) Importance of food-demand management for climate mitigation. Nature Clim Change 4: 924–929. doi: 10.1038/nclimate2353
[90]  Tilman D, Clark M (2014) Global diets link environmental sustainability and human health. Nature 515: 518–522. doi: 10.1038/nature13959. pmid:25383533
[91]  Pandya R (2014) Milk without the moo. New Sci 222: 28–29. doi: 10.1016/s0262-4079(14)61260-4
[92]  Gilroy JJ, Edwards FA, Uribe CAM, Haugaasen T, Edwards DP (2014) Surrounding habitats mediate the trade-off between land-sharing and land-sparing agriculture in the tropics. J Appl Ecol 51: 1337–1346. doi: 10.1111/1365-2664.12284
[93]  Hobbs PR, Sayre K, Gupta R (2008) The role of conservation agriculture in sustainable agriculture. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 363: 543–555. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2007.2169
[94]  Chen X-P, Cui Z-L, Vitousek PM, Cassman KG, Matson PA, et al. (2011) Integrated soil–crop system management for food security. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108: 6399–6404. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1101419108. pmid:21444818
[95]  Tester M, Langridge P (2010) Breeding technologies to increase crop production in a changing world. Science 327: 818–822. doi: 10.1126/science.1183700. pmid:20150489
[96]  Bateman IJ, Harwood AR, Mace GM, Watson RT, Abson DJ, et al. (2013) Bringing ecosystem services into economic decision-making: land use in the United Kingdom. Science 341: 45–50. doi: 10.1126/science.1234379. pmid:23828934
[97]  Anderson K, Nelgen S (2013) Updated national and global estimates of distortions to agricultural incentives, 1955 to 2011.
[98]  Anderson K, Kurzweil M, Martin W, Sandri D, Valenzuela E (2008) Measuring distortions to agricultural incentives, revisited. World Trade Rev 7: 1–30. doi: 10.1017/s1474745608004011

Full-Text

Contact Us

service@oalib.com

QQ:3279437679

WhatsApp +8615387084133