Vehicle navigation systems usually simply function by calculating the shortest fastest route over a road network. In contrast, pedestrian navigation can have more diverse concerns. Pedestrians are not constrained to road/path networks; their route may involve going into buildings (where accurate satellite locational signals are not available) and they have different priorities, for example, preferring routes that are quieter or more sheltered from the weather. In addition, there are differences in how people are best directed: pedestrians noticing landmarks such as buildings, doors, and steps rather than junctions and sign posts. Landmarks exist both indoors and outdoors. A system has been developed that uses quick response (QR) codes affixed to registered landmarks allowing users to localise themselves with respect to their route and with navigational instructions given in terms of these landmarks. In addition, the system includes images of each landmark helping users to navigate visually in addition to through textual instructions and route maps. The system runs on a mobile device; the users use the device’s camera to register each landmark’s QR code and so update their position (particularly indoors) and progress through the route itinerary. 1. Introduction Location-based services (LBSs) are now widely used by mobile users in many situations, such as finding their current location on the map or listing locations of nearby shops or facilities. One of the most important LBSs is navigation services which provide users with instructions to get to their destinations, among other functions. Existing car navigation systems are not fully suitable for the navigational needs of pedestrians because car navigation systems are not fully compatible with pedestrians’ demands and characteristics. In many cases pedestrians need seamless indoor and outdoor way-finding assistance [1]. The pedestrian navigation system needs other reliable and accurate positioning techniques where globe navigation satellite systems (GNSS) signals are not available. Pedestrians can easily go into buildings as well as streets so an ideal navigation system should work seamlessly in and out of doors. Seamless indoor and outdoor navigation is one of the most important features which should be handled in a pedestrian navigation application and is still a topic of many research projects [2–6]. Another aspect of pedestrian navigation differing from car navigation is non-turn-by-turn navigational instruction delivery. As stated before, in contrast with drivers, pedestrians have a higher degree of
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