Recent advances in aluminum toxicity and resistance in higher plants

aluminum toxicity is a major soil constraint to food and biomass production throughout the world. considerable advances in the understanding of the mechanism of resistance involving exudation of organic acids have been made in recent years. however, despite intense research efforts, there are many aspects of al toxicity that remain unclear. this article reviews the features of the chemistry of al relevant to its toxicity followed by an examination of the mechanisms of toxicity and resistance. emphasis, however, is given to the mechanisms of al toxicity, since resistance has been covered recently by several reviews. some topics which are specifically discussed in this review are: a) the possible role of cellular effects of low ph in al toxicity, which has been largely ignored and needs to be addressed; b) the relevance of non-genotypic (cell-to-cell) variations in sensitivity to al; c) evidence indicating that although al may well exert its toxic effects in the cell wall, it is highly unlikely that al does so in a non-specific manner by mere exchangeable binding; and d) the hypothesis that the primary target of al toxicity resides in the cell wall-plasma membrane-cytoskeleton (cw-pm-csk) continuum has the potential to integrate and conciliate much of the apparently conflicting results in this field.