全部 标题 作者
关键词 摘要

OALib Journal期刊
ISSN: 2333-9721
费用：99美元
投递稿件

查看量下载量

相关文章

更多...

Characterisation of the Wildlife Reservoir Community for Human and Animal Trypanosomiasis in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001211

Full-Text   Cite this paper   Add to My Lib

Abstract:

Background Animal and human trypanosomiasis are constraints to both animal and human health in Sub-Saharan Africa, but there is little recent evidence as to how these parasites circulate in wild hosts in natural ecosystems. The Luangwa Valley in Zambia supports high densities of tsetse flies (Glossina species) and is recognised as an historical sleeping sickness focus. The objective of this study was to characterise the nature of the reservoir community for trypanosomiasis in the absence of influence from domesticated hosts. Methodology/Principal Findings A cross-sectional survey of trypanosome prevalence in wildlife hosts was conducted in the Luangwa Valley from 2005 to 2007. Samples were collected from 418 animals and were examined for the presence of Trypanosoma brucei s.l., T. b. rhodesiense, Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanosoma vivax using molecular diagnostic techniques. The overall prevalence of infection in all species was 13.9% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 10.71–17.57%). Infection was significantly more likely to be detected in waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) (Odds ratio [OR] = 10.5, 95% CI: 2.36–46.71), lion (Panthera leo) (OR = 5.3, 95% CI: 1.40–19.69), greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) (OR = 4.7, 95% CI: 1.41–15.41) and bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) (OR = 4.5, 95% CI: 1.51–13.56). Bushbucks are important hosts for T. brucei s.l. while the Bovidae appear the most important for T. congolense. The epidemiology of T. vivax was less clear, but parasites were detected most frequently in waterbuck. Human infective T. b. rhodesiense were identified for the first time in African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and T. brucei s.l. in leopard (Panthera pardus). Variation in infection rates was demonstrated at species level rather than at family or sub-family level. A number of significant risk factors interact to influence infection rates in wildlife including taxonomy, habitat and blood meal preference. Conclusion and Significance Trypanosoma parasites circulate within a wide and diverse host community in this bio-diverse ecosystem. Consistent land use patterns over the last century have resulted in epidemiological stability, but this may be threatened by the recent influx of people and domesticated livestock into the mid-Luangwa Valley.

 References

[1]  Kinghorn A, Yorke W, Lloyd L (1913) Final report of the Luangwa Sleeping Sickness Commission of the BSA Co 1911–1912. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 7: 183–283.
[2]  Stephens JWW, Fanthom HB (1910) On the peculiar morphology of a trypanosome from a case of sleeping sickness and the possibility of its being a new species (T. rhodesiense). Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 4: 343–350. doi: 10.1098/rspb.1910.0064
[3]  Allsopp R (1972) The role of game animals in the maintenance of endemic and enzootic trypanosomiasis in the Lambwe valley, south Nyanza District, Kenya. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation 47:
[4]  Baker JR (1968) Trypanosomes of wild mammals in the neighbourhood of the Serengeti National Park. Symposium of the Zoological Society of London 24: 147–158.
[5]  Burridge MJ, Reid HW, Pullan NB, Sutherst RW, Wain EB (1970) Survey for trypanosome infections in domestic cattle and wild animals in areas of East Africa. II. Salivarian trypanosome infections in wild animals in Busoga District, Uganda. British Veterinary Journal 126: 627–633.
[6]  Carmichael IH, Hobday E (1975) Blood parasites of some wild bovidae in Botswana. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 42: 55–62.
[7]  Dillmann JSS, Townsend AJ (1979) Trypanosomiasis survey of wild animals in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia. Acta Tropica 36: 349–356.
[8]  Drager N, Mehlitz D (1978) Investigations on Prevalence of Trypanosome Carriers and Antibody-Response in Wildlife in Northern Botswana. Tropenmedizin Und Parasitologie 29: 223–233.
[9]  Geigy R, Kauffmann M, Beglinger R (1967) A survey of wild animals as potential reservoirs of trypanosomiasis in the Ulanga district (Tanzania). Acta Trop 24: 97–108.
[10]  Geigy R, Myambu PM, Kauffmann M (1971) Sleeping sickness survey in Musoma District, Tanzania. IV. Examination of wild mammals as a potential reservoir for T. rhodesiense. Acta Tropica 28: 211–220.
[11]  Geigy R, Kauffmann M, Jenni L (1973) Wild mammals as reservoirs for Rhodesian sleeping sickness in the Serengeti, 1970/71. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 67: 284–286. doi: 10.1016/0035-9203(73)90202-2
[12]  Kaare MT, Picozzi K, Welburn SC, Mtambo MM, Mellau LSB, et al. pp. 204–217. Sleeping sickness in the Serengeti ecological zone: the role of wild and domestic animals as reservoir hosts for the disease; 2003; Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute.
[13]  Keymer IF (1969) A survey of trypanosome infections in wild ungulates in Luangwa Valley, Zambia. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 63: 195–200.
[14]  Mattioli RC, Jean O, Belem AMG (1990) The incidence of trypanosomiasis in wild animals in a game park in Burkina Faso. [French] Incidence de la trypanosomose sur la faune sauvage d'un ranch de gibier au Birkina Faso. Revue d'Elevage et de Medecine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux 43: 459–465.
[15]  Mwambu PM, Woodford MH (1972) Trypanosomes from game animals of the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Western Uganda. Tropical Animal Health & Production 4: 152–155. doi: 10.1007/BF02359763
[16]  Truc P, Formenty P, Duvallet G, KomoinOka C, Diallo PB, et al. (1997) Identification of trypanosomes isolated by KIVI from wild mammals in Cote d'Ivoire: Diagnostic, taxonomic and epidemiological considerations. Acta Tropica 67: 187–196. doi: 10.1016/S0001-706X(97)00062-4
[17]  Vanderplank FL (1947) Seasonal and annual variation in the incidence of trypanosomiasis in game. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 41: 365–374.
[18]  Claxton JR, Faye JA, Rawlings P (1992) Trypanosome infections in warthogs (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) in the Gambia. 179–187, 1992 Mar.
[19]  Bengis RG, Kock RA, Fischer J (2002) Infectious animal diseases: the wildlife / livestock interface. Revue Scientifique Et Technique De L Office International Des Epizooties 21: 53–65.
[20]  Gortazar C, Ferroglio E, Hofle U, Frolich K, Vicente J (2007) Diseases shared between wildlife and livestock: a European perspective. European Journal of Wildlife Research 53: 241–256. doi: 10.1007/s10344-007-0098-y
[21]  Bertram BCR (1973) Sleeping sickness survey in the Serengeti area (Tanzania) 1971. III. Discussion of the relevance of the trypanosome survey to the biology of large mammals in the Serengeti. Acta Tropica 30: 36–48.
[22]  Rickman LR, Robson J (1970) The blood incubation infectivity test: a simple test which may serve to distinguish Trypanosoma brucei from T. rhodesiense. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 42: 650–651.
[23]  Rickman LR, Ernest A, Kanyangala S, Kunda E (1991) Human Serum Sensitivities of Trypanozoon Isolates from Naturally Infected Hosts in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia. East African Medical Journal 68: 880–892.
[24]  Mulla AF, Rickman LR (1988) The isolation of human serum-resistant Trypanosoma (Trypanozoon) species from zebra and impala in Luangwa Valley, Zambia. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 82: 718. doi: 10.1016/0035-9203(88)90211-8
[25]  Awan MA (1979) Identification by the blood incubation infectivity test of Trypanosoma brucei subspecies isolated from game animals in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia. Acta Tropica 36: 343–347.
[26]  Picozzi K, Carrington M, Welburn SC (2008) A multiplex PCR that discriminates between Trypanosoma brucei brucei and zoonotic T-b. rhodesiense. Experimental Parasitology 118: 41–46. doi: 10.1016/j.exppara.2007.05.014
[27]  Cox A, Tilley A, McOdimba F, Fyfe J, Eisler M, et al. (2005) A PCR based assay for detection and differentiation of African trypanosome species in blood. Experimental Parasitology 111: 24–29. doi: 10.1016/j.exppara.2005.03.014
[28]  Cox A, Tosas O, Tilley A, Picozzi K, Coleman P, et al. (2010) Constraints to estimating the prevalence of trypanosome infections in East African zebu cattle. Parasites & Vectors 3: 82. doi: 10.1186/1756-3305-3-82
[29]  Becker S, Franco JR, Simarro PP, Stich A, Abel PM, et al. (2004) Real-time PCR for detection of Trypanosoma brucei in human blood samples. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 50: 193–199. doi: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2004.07.001
[30]  Moser DR, Cook GA, Ochs DE, Bailey CP, McKane MR, et al. (1989) Detection of Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanosoma brucei subspecies by DNA amplification using the polymerase chain reaction. Parasitology 99 Pt 1: 57–66. doi: 10.1017/S0031182000061023
[31]  Welburn SC, Picozzi K, Fevre EM, Coleman PG, Odiit M, et al. (2001) Identification of human-infective trypanosomes in animal reservoir of sleeping sickness in Uganda by means of serum-resistance-associated (SRA) gene. Lancet 358: 2017–2019. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(01)07096-9
[32]  R Development Core Team (2008) R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. ISBN 3-900051-07-0, URL http://www.R-project.org.
[33]  Wilson DE, Reeder DM, editors. (2005) Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference 3rd ed. Baltimore Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.
[34]  Clausen PH, Adeyemi I, Bauer B, Breloeer M, Salchow F, et al. (1998) Host preferences of tsetse (Diptera: Glossinidae) based on bloodmeal identifications. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 12: 169–180. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2915.1998.00097.x
[35]  Leak SGA (1998) Tsetse biology and ecology: their role in the epidemiology and control of trypanosomosis. Tsetse biology and ecology: their role in the epidemiology and control of trypanosomosis. in association with the International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya, Wallingford: CAB International. pp xxiii + 568.
[36]  Mulligan HW, Potts WH, editors. (1970) The African Trypanosomiases. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. 950 p.
[37]  Auty HK (2009) Ecology of a vector-borne zoonosis in a complex ecosystem: Trypanosomiasis in Serengeti, Tanzania. Edinburgh: Edinburgh. 232 p.
[38]  Bronsvoort BMdC, Wissmann Bv, Fevre EM, Handel IG, Picozzi K, et al. No Gold Standard Estimation of the Sensitivity and Specificity of Two Molecular Diagnostic Protocols for Trypanosoma brucei spp in Western Kenya. PLoS ONE 5: e8628. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008628
[39]  Welburn S, Picozzi K, Coleman PG, Packer C (2008) Patterns in Age-Seroprevalence Consistent with Acquired Immunity against Trypanosoma brucei in Serengeti Lions. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2: e347. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000347
[40]  Dillmann JS, Awan MAQ (1972) Polymorphic trypanosome infection in a lion. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 66: 421–422.
[41]  Heisch RB, McMahon JP, Mansonbahr PEC (1958) The isolation of Trypanosoma rhodesiense from a bushbuck. British Medical Journal 2: 1203–1204. doi: 10.1136/bmj.2.5106.1203
[42]  Ndhlovu DE, Balakrishnan M (1991) Large herbivores in Upper Lupande Game Management Area, Luangwa Valley, Zambia. African Journal of Ecology 29: 93–104. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2028.1991.tb00990.x
[43]  Gikonyo NK, Hassanali A, Njagi PG, Saini RK (2000) Behaviour of Glossina morsitans morsitans Westwood (Diptera: Glossinidae) on waterbuck Kobus defassa Ruppel and feeding membranes smeared with waterbuck sebum indicates the presence of allomones. Acta Trop 77: 295–303. doi: 10.1016/S0001-706X(00)00153-4
[44]  Kock RA (2005) What is this infamous “wildlife/livestock disease interface?” A review of current knowledge for the African continent. In: Osofsky SA, editor. Conservation and Development Interventions at the Wildlife/Livestock Interface - Implications for Wildlife, Livestock and Human Health. pp. 1–13.
[45]  Onyango RJ, Geigy R, Kauffman M, Jenni L, Steiger R (1973) New animal reservoirs of T. rhodesiense sleeping sickness. 30: 275.
[46]  Welburn SC, Picozzi K, Kaare M, Fevre EM, Coleman PG, et al. (2005) Control options for human sleeping sickness in relation to the animal reservoir of disease. In: Osofsky SA, editor. Conservation and Development Interventions at the Wildlife/Livestock Interface - Implications for Wildlife, Livestock and Human Health. Gland: Iucn-World Conservation Union. pp. 55–61.
[47]  Van den Bossche P (2001) Some general aspects of the distribution and epidemiology of bovine trypanosomosis in southern Africa. International Journal for Parasitology 31: 592–598. doi: 10.1016/S0020-7519(01)00146-1
[48]  Batchelor NA, Atkinson PM, Gething PW, Picozzi K, Fèvre EM, et al. (2009) Spatial Predictions of Rhodesian Human African Trypanosomiasis (Sleeping Sickness) Prevalence in Kaberamaido and Dokolo, Two Newly Affected Districts of Uganda. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 3: e563. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000563
[49]  Jones KE, Patel NG, Levy MA, Storeygard A, Balk D, et al. (2008) Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature 451: 990–993. doi: 10.1038/nature06536
[50]  Keesing F, Belden LK, Daszak P, Dobson A, Harvell CD, et al. (2010) Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases. Nature 468: 647–652. doi: 10.1038/nature09575
[51]  von Wissmann B, Machila N, Picozzi K, Fèvre EM, deC. Bronsvoort BM, et al. (2011) Factors Associated with Acquisition of Human Infective and Animal Infective Trypanosome Infections in Domestic Livestock in Western Kenya. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5: e941. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000941
[52]  Clausen B (1981) Survey for Trypanosomes in Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 17: 581–586.
[53]  Mihok S, Munyoki E, Brett RA, Jonyo JF, Rottcher D, et al. (1992) Trypanosomiasis and the conservation of black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) at the Ngulia Rhino Sanctuary, Tsavo West National Park, Kenya. African Journal of Ecology. 30. : 103–115. 130ref.
[54]  Mihok S, Zweygarth E, Munyoki EN, Wambua J, Kock R (1994) Trypanosoma simiae in the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) and the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius). Veterinary Parasitology 53: 191–196. doi: 10.1016/0304-4017(94)90182-1
[55]  Pilson RD, Pilson BM (1967) Behaviour studies of Glossina morsitans Westwood in field. Bulletin of Entomological Research 57: 227. doi: 10.1017/S0007485300049956
[56]  Mubanga J (2008) Animal trypanosomiasis in the Eastern Province of Zambia: epidemiology in the recently-settled areas and evaluation of a novel method for control. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh.
[57]  Van den Bossche P, Shumba W, Makhambera P (2000) The distribution and epidemiology of bovine trypanosomosis in Malawi. Veterinary Parasitology 88: 163–176. doi: 10.1016/S0304-4017(99)00222-8
[58]  van den Bossche P, Mudenge D, Mubanga J, Norval A (1999) The parasitological and serological prevalence of tsetse-transmitted bovine trypanosomosis in the Eastern Caprivi (Caprivi District, Namibia). Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 66: 103–110.

Full-Text

Contact Us

service@oalib.com

QQ:3279437679

WhatsApp +8615387084133