| [1] | Kasturiratne A, Rajitha-Wickremasinghe A, de Silva N, Kithsiri-Gunawardena N, Pathmeswaran A, et al. (2008) The Global Burden of Snakebite: A Literature Analysis and Modelling Based on Regional Estimates of Envenoming and Deaths. PLoS Medicine 5: 218. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0050218
|
| [2] | Brazilian Ministry of Health (2001) Manual de Diagnostico e Tratamento de Acidentes por Animais Peconhentos. 2nd edition. Brasília, Brazil: Fundacao Nacional de Saude.
|
| [3] | Luzia S, Cruz LS, Vargas R, Lopes AA (2009) Snakebite envenomation and death in the developing world. Ethnicity & Disease 19[Suppl1]: S142–S146.
|
| [4] | Sitprija V (2006) Snakebite nephropathy. Nephrology 11: 442–448. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1797.2006.00599.x
|
| [5] | Pinho FM, Zanneta DM, Burdmann EA (2005) Acute renal failure after Crotalus durissus snakebite: a prospective survey on 100 patients. Kidney Int 67: 659–667. doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.67122.x
|
| [6] | Yamasaki SC, Villarroel JS, Barone JM, Alegre VS, Zambotti-Villela L, et al. (2008) Crotalus durissus terrificus venom and simvastatin affect oxidative stress and plasma, urine and renal aminopeptidases in mice. Toxicon 52: 445–454. doi: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.06.015
|
| [7] | Alegre VS, Barone JM, Yamasaki SC, Zambotti-Villela L, Silveira PF (2010) Lipoic acid effects on renal function, aminopeptidase activities and oxidative stress in Crotalus durissus terrificus envenomation in mice. Toxicon 56: 402–410. doi: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.04.003
|
| [8] | Magalhaes RA, Ribeiro MMF, Rezende NA, Amaral CFS (1986) Rabdomiólise secundária a acidente ofídico crotálico (Crotalus durissus terrificus). Rev Inst Med trop Sao Paulo 28: 228–233. doi: 10.1590/S0036-46651986000400004
|
| [9] | Kanjanabuch T, Sitprija V (2008) Snakebite nephrotoxicity in Asia Semin. Nephrol 28: 363–372. doi: 10.1016/j.semnephrol.2008.04.005
|
| [10] | Cerdá J, Lameire N, Eggers P, Pannu N, Uchino S, et al. (2008) Epidemiology of acute kidney injury. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 3: 881–886. doi: 10.2215/CJN.04961107
|
| [11] | Davenport A, Bouman C, Kirpalani A, Skippen P, Tolwani A, et al. (2008) Delivery of renal replacement therapy in acute kidney injury: what are the key issues? Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 3: 869–875. doi: 10.2215/CJN.04821107
|
| [12] | Mehta RL, Kellum JA, Shah SV, Molitoris BA, Ronco C, et al. (2007) Acute Kidney Injury Network. Acute Kidney Injury Network: report of an initiative to improve outcomes in acute kidney injury. Crit Care 11: R31. doi: 10.1186/cc5713
|
| [13] | Ejaz AA, Mu W, Kang DH, Roncal C, Sautin YY, et al. (2007) Could uric acid have a role in acute renal failure? Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2: 16–21. doi: 10.2215/CJN.00350106
|
| [14] | Feig DI, Kang D-H, Johnson RJ (2008) Uric Acid and Cardiovascular Risk. N Engl J Med 359: 1811–1821. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra0800885
|
| [15] | Sanchez-Lozada LG, Soto V, Tapia E, Avila-Casado C, Sautin YY, et al. (2008) Role of oxidative stress in the renal abnormalities induced by experimental hyperuricemia. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 295: F1134–F1141. doi: 10.1152/ajprenal.00104.2008
|
| [16] | Stavric B, Johnson WJ, Grice HC (1969) Uric acid nephropathy: an experimental model. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 130: 512–516. doi: 10.3181/00379727-130-33593
|
| [17] | Bradley A, Caskey CT (1994) Hyperuricemia and urate nephropathy in urate oxidase deficient mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91: 742–746. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.2.742
|
| [18] | Mazzali M, Kanellis J, Han L, Feng L, Chen Q, et al. (2002) Hyperuricemia induces a primary renal arteriolopathy in rats by a blood pressure independent mechanism. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 6: F991–F997. doi: 10.1152/ajprenal.00283.2001
|
| [19] | Khosla UM, Zharikov S, Finch JL, Nakagawa T, Roncal C, et al. (2005) Hyperuricemia induces endothelial dysfunction. Kidney Int 67: 1739–1742. doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.00273.x
|
| [20] | Nakagawa T, Mazzali M, Kang DH, Kanellis J, Watanabe S, et al. (2003) Hyperuricemia causes glomerular hypertrophy in the rat. Am J Nephrol 23: 2–7. doi: 10.1159/000066303
|
| [21] | Yu M-A, Sanches-Lozada L, Johnson RJ, Kang D-H (2010) Oxidative stress with an activation of the renin–angiotensin system in human vascular endothelial cells as a novel mechanism of uric acid-induced endothelial dysfunction. J Hypertens 28: 1234–1242. doi: 10.1097/hjh.0b013e328337da1d
|
| [22] | Mazzali M, Hughes J, Kim YG, Jefferson JA, Kang DH, et al. (2001) Elevated uric acid increases blood pressure in the rat by a novel crystalindependent mechanism. Hypertension 38: 1101–1106. doi: 10.1161/hy1101.092839
|
| [23] | Zharikov S, Krotova K, Hu H, Baylis C, Johnson RJ, et al. (2008) Uric acid decreases NO production and increases arginase activity in cultured pulmonary artery endothelial cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 295: 1183–1190. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00075.2008
|
| [24] | Kang DH, Park SK, Lee IK, Johnson RJ (2005) Uric acid-induced C-reactive protein expression: implication on cell proliferation and nitric oxide production of human vascular cells. J Am Soc Nephrol 16: 3553–3562. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2005050572
|
| [25] | Gersch C, Palii SP, Kim KM, Angerhofer A, Johnson RJ, et al. (2008) Inactivation of nitric oxide by uric acid. Nucleosides Nucleotides Nucleic Acids 27: 967–978. doi: 10.1080/15257770802257952
|
| [26] | Corry DB, Eslami P, Yamamoto K, Nyby MD, Makino H, et al. (2008) Uric acid stimulates vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and oxidative stress via the vascular renin–angiotensin system. J Hypertens 26: 269–275. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0b013e3282f240bf
|
| [27] | Sautin YY, Nakagawa T, Zharikov S, Johnson RJ (2007) Adverse effects of the classic antioxidant uric acid in adipocytes: NADPH oxidase-mediated oxidative/nitrosative stress. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 293: 584–596. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00600.2006
|
| [28] | Becker BF (1993) Towards the physiological function of uric acid. Free Radic Biol Med 14: 615–631. doi: 10.1016/0891-5849(93)90143-I
|
| [29] | Hink HU, Santanam N, Dikalov S, McCann L, Nguyen AD, et al. (2002) Peroxidase properties of extracellular superoxide dismutase: role of uric acid in modulating in vivo activity. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 22: 1402–1408. doi: 10.1161/01.ATV.0000027524.86752.02
|
| [30] | Ames BN, Cathcart R, Schwiers E, Hochstein P (1981) Uric acid provides an antioxidant defense in humans against oxidant- and radical-caused aging and cancer: a hypothesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 78: 6858–6862. doi: 10.1073/pnas.78.11.6858
|
| [31] | Waring WS, Webb DJ, Maxwell SR (2001) Systemic uric acid administration increases serum antioxidant capacity in healthy volunteers. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 38: 365–371. doi: 10.1097/00005344-200109000-00005
|
| [32] | Pinho FM, Vidal EC, Burdmann EA (2000) Atualiza？？es em insuficiência renal aguda: insuficiência renal após acidente crotálico. J Bras Nefrol 22: 162–168.
|
| [33] | Bradford MM (1976) A rapid and sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding. Analytical biochemist 72: 248–254. doi: 10.1016/0003-2697(76)90527-3
|
| [34] | Marinho CE, Olivo RA, Zambotti-Villela L, Ribeiro-de-Andrade TN, Fernandes CM, et al. (2006) Renal and macrophage aminopeptidase activities in cyclosporin-treated mice. Int Immunopharmacol 6: 415–425. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2005.09.004
|
| [35] | Selmanoglu G, Karacaoglu E, Kili？ A, Ko？kaya EA, Akay MT (2011) Toxicity of food contaminant furan on liver and kidney of growing male rats. Environ Toxicol. DOI 10.1002/tox.20673. doi: 10.1002/tox.20673
|
| [36] | Pinho FM, Yu L, Burdmann EA (2008) Snakebite-induced acute kidney injury in Latin America. Semin Nephrol 28: 354–362. doi: 10.1016/j.semnephrol.2008.04.004
|
| [37] | Bochner R, Struchiner CJ (2003) Epidemiologia dos acidentes ofídicos nos últimos 100 anos no Brasil: uma revis？o. Cad Saúde Pública 19: 7–16. doi: 10.1590/s0102-311x2003000100002
|
| [38] | Pinho FM, Oliveira ES, Faleiros F (2004) Acidente ofídico no estado de Goiás. Rev Assoc Med Bras 50: 93–96. doi: 10.1590/S0104-42302004000100043
|
| [39] | Day RO, Graham GG, Hicks M, McLachlan AJ, Stockerm SL, et al. (2007) Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of allopurinol and oxypurinol. Clin Pharmacokinet 46: 623–644. doi: 10.2165/00003088-200746080-00001
|
| [40] | George J, Carr E, Davies J, Belch JJF, Struthers A (2006) High-dose allopurinol improves endothelial function by profoundly reducing vascular oxidative stress and not by lowering uric acid. Circulation 114: 2508–2516. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.651117
|
| [41] | Kang DH, Han L, Ouyang X, Kahn AM, Kanellis J, et al. (2005) Uric acid causes vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation by entering cells via a functional urate transporter. Am J Nephrol 25: 425–433. doi: 10.1159/000087713
|
| [42] | Price KL, Sautin YY, Long DA, Zhang L, Miyazaki H, et al. (2006) Human vascular smooth muscle cells express a urate transporter. J Am Soc Nephrol 17: 1791–1795. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2006030264
|
| [43] | Chao J, Terkeltaub R (2009) A critical reappraisal of allopurinol dosing, safety, and efficacy for hyperuricemia in gout. Curr Rheumatol Rep 11: 135–140. doi: 10.1007/s11926-009-0019-z
|
| [44] | Kong LD, Yang C, Ge F, Wang HD, Guo YS (2004) A Chinese herbal medicine Ermiao wan reduces serum uric acid level and inhibits liver xanthine dehydrogenase and xanthine oxidase in mice. J Ethnopharmacol 93: 325–330. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2004.04.008
|
| [45] | Yamada H, Kotaki H, Furitsu H, Sawada Y, Iga T (1999) Mechanism of uricosuric action of E3040, a drug used to treat inflammatory bowel disease II: study using DBA/2N mice. Biopharm Drug Dispos 20: 271–276. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-081X(199907)20:5<271::AID-BDD185>3.0.CO;2-I
|
| [46] | Turnheim K, Krivanek P, Oberbauer R (1999) Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of allopurinol in elderly and young subjects. Br J Clin Pharmacol 48: 501–509. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2125.1999.00041.x
|
| [47] | Cáceres A, Girón LM, Martínez AM (1987) Diuretic activity of plants used for the treatment of urinary ailments in Guatemala. J Ethnopharmacol 19: 233–245. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(87)90001-8
|
| [48] | Doehner W, Schoene N, Rauchhaus M, Leyva-Leon F, Pavitt DV, et al. (2002) Hyperuricemic patients with chronic heart failure results from 2 placebo-controlled studies. Circulation 105: 2619–2624. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000017502.58595.ED
|
| [49] | Rhoden E, Teloken C, Lucas M, Rhoden C, Mauri M, et al. (2000) Protective effect of allopurinol in the renal ischemia–reperfusion in uninephrectomized rats. Gen Pharmacol 35: 189–193. doi: 10.1016/S0306-3623(01)00105-7
|
| [50] | Sautin YY, Johnson RJ (2008) Uric acid: the oxidant–antioxidant paradox. Nucleosides Nucleotides Nucleic Acids 27: 608–619. doi: 10.1080/15257770802138558
|
| [51] | Santos CX, Anjos EI, Augusto O (1999) Uric acid oxidation by peroxynitrite: multiple reactions, free radical formation, and amplification of lipid oxidation. Arch Biochem Biophys 372: 285–294. doi: 10.1006/abbi.1999.1491
|
