Assessment of Mercury Contamination in the St. Paul River and Tumah Creek in Liberia: Implications of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining on Water Quality and Public Health
Despite being a vital source of income for millions of people worldwide, artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) poses significant health and environmental risks due to the unregulated use of mercury in the gold extraction process. This study, therefore, examines two important water bodies in Liberia, the St. Paul River (Montserrado County) and Tumah Creek (Gbarpolu County), to determine the incidence of mercury pollution in areas where ASGM activity is prevalent. To evaluate mercury concentrations and their possible effects on water quality, a total of 15 water samples were taken from these sites. The total mercury content in the samples was measured using Cold Vapor Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (CVAAS). High mercury levels were found in several locations, especially close to active mining sites, according to the results. Due to the lack of filtration technologies, the local community, which depends on these water sources for drinking and household use, is seriously at risk for health problems as a result of this contamination. To reduce the dangers of mercury exposure, the findings highlight the urgent need for stronger regulation of ASGM activities and serve as a foundation for upcoming environmental health assessments and policy development in Liberia.
References
[1]
Steckling, N., Tobollik, M., Plass, D., Hornberg, C., Ericson, B., Fuller, R., et al. (2017) Global Burden of Disease of Mercury Used in Artisanal Small-Scale Gold Mining. Annals of Global Health, 83, 234-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2016.12.005
[2]
Steenhuisen, F. and Wilson, S.J. (2019) Development and Application of an Updated Geospatial Distribution Model for Gridding 2015 Global Mercury Emissions. Atmospheric Environment, 211, 138-150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.05.003
[3]
Saim, A.K. (2021) Mercury (Hg) Use and Pollution Assessment of ASGM in Ghana: Challenges and Strategies towards Hg Reduction. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28, 61919-61928. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16532-4
[4]
Gibb, H. and O’Leary, K.G. (2014) Mercury Exposure and Health Impacts among Individuals in the Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Community: A Comprehensive Review. Environmental Health Perspectives, 122, 667-672. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307864
[5]
Basu, N., Clarke, E., Green, A., Calys-Tagoe, B., Chan, L., Dzodzomenyo, M., et al. (2015) Integrated Assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana—Part 1: Human Health Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12, 5143-5176. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120505143
[6]
Veiga, M.M., Angeloci-Santos, G. and Meech, J.A. (2014) Review of Barriers to Reduce Mercury Use in Artisanal Gold Mining. The Extractive Industries and Society, 1, 351-361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2014.03.004
[7]
Esdaile, L.J. and Chalker, J.M. (2018) The Mercury Problem in Artisanal and Small‐scale Gold Mining. Chemistry—A European Journal, 24, 6905-6916. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201704840
[8]
Tampushi, L.L., Onyari, J.M. and Muthama, N.J. (2022) Assessing Social and Environmental Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Practices in Lolgorian, Kenya. European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 6, em0192. https://doi.org/10.21601/ejosdr/12153
[9]
Terán-Mita, T.A., Faz, A., Salvador, F., Arocena, J.M. and Acosta, J.A. (2013) High Altitude Artisanal Small-Scale Gold Mines Are Hot Spots for Mercury in Soils and Plants. Environmental Pollution, 173, 103-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2012.10.008
[10]
Chemicals Unit, UNEP; Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC) (2002) Global Mercury Assessment. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Chemicals. https://www.unep.org/resources/report/global-mercury-assessment-2002-0
[11]
Ovadje, L., Calys-Tagoe, B.N., Clarke, E. and Basu, N. (2021) Registration Status, Mercury Exposure Biomarkers, and Neuropsychological Assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Miners (ASGM) from the Western Region of Ghana. Environmental Research, 201, Article 111639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.111639
[12]
Roman, H.A., Walsh, T.L., Coull, B.A., Dewailly, é., Guallar, E., Hattis, D., et al. (2011) Evaluation of the Cardiovascular Effects of Methylmercury Exposures: Current Evidence Supports Development of a Dose-Response Function for Regulatory Benefits Analysis. Environmental Health Perspectives, 119, 607-614. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1003012
[13]
Bose-O’Reilly, S., McCarty, K.M., Steckling, N. and Lettmeier, B. (2010) Mercury Exposure and Children’s Health. Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care, 40, 186-215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cppeds.2010.07.002
[14]
Wu, Y., Osman, A.I., Hosny, M., Elgarahy, A.M., Eltaweil, A.S., Rooney, D.W., et al. (2024) The Toxicity of Mercury and Its Chemical Compounds: Molecular Mechanisms and Environmental and Human Health Implications: A Comprehensive Review. ACS Omega, 9, 5100-5126. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c07047
[15]
Rajaee, M., Obiri, S., Green, A., Long, R., Cobbina, S., Nartey, V., et al. (2015) Integrated Assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana—Part 2: Natural Sciences Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12, 8971-9011. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120808971
[16]
Mohammed, A.K. (2019) Assessment of Heavy Metal Pollution in Soil and Surface Water in Mng-Gold, Kokoya District, Bong County, Liberia. PhD Thesis, African University of Science and Technology. http://repository.aust.edu.ng/xmlui/handle/123456789/4957
[17]
Hunter, M. (2020) Illicit Financial Flows: Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana and Liberia. https://doi.org/10.1787/5f2e9dd9-en
[18]
Thieme, M.L., Abell, R., Stiassny, M.L., Skelton, P., Lehner, B., Teugels, G.G., et al. (2005) Fresh-Water Ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar: A Conservation Assessment. https://agris.fao.org/search/en/providers/122621/records/647396aece9437aa760044f4
[19]
Hentschel, T., Hruschka, F. and Priester, M. (2002) Global Report on Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining. Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development. https://intranetua.uantof.cl/crea/cguerra/pdffiles/otros/070_globalasm.pdf
[20]
Veiga, M. and Baker, R. (2004) Global Mercury Project. Protocols for Environmental and Health Assessment of Mercury Released by Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Miners. https://agris.fao.org/search/en/providers/122621/records/64739665ce9437aa76003867
[21]
Elezz, A.A., Mustafa Hassan, H., Abdulla Alsaadi, H., Easa, A., Al-Meer, S., Elsaid, K., et al. (2018) Validation of Total Mercury in Marine Sediment and Biological Samples, Using Cold Vapour Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. Methods and Protocols, 1, Article 31. https://doi.org/10.3390/mps1030031
[22]
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2019) EPA Method 245.1: Determination of Mercury in Water by Cold Vapor Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. https://www.epa.gov/esam/epa-method-2451-determination-mercury-water-cold-vapor-atomic-absorption-spectrometry
[23]
Kumar, A., Bisht, B.S., Joshi, V.D., Singh, A.K. and Talwar, A. (2010) Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological Study of Water from Rivers of Uttarakhand. Journal of Human Ecology, 32, 169-173. https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2010.11906336
[24]
Aryal, J., Gautam, B. and Sapkota, N. (2012) Drinking Water Quality Assessment. https://elibrary.nhrc.gov.np/handle/20.500.14356/1938
[25]
Laerd Statistics (2026) Mann-Whitney U Test in SPSS Statistics. Setup, Procedure & Interpretation. https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-tutorials/mann-whitney-u-test-using-spss-statistics.php?utm_source=copilot.com
[26]
Lee, H.S. and Lim, J.H. (2013) Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. JypHyunJae Publication. http://leo.stewart.free.fr/AUTRE/Rapport_de_stage_spss.doc
[27]
Maier, E.A. (1991) Certified Reference Materials for the Quality Control of Measurements in Environmental Monitoring. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 10, 340-347. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-9936(91)87011-t
[28]
Wise, S.A. (2018) What Is Novel about Certified Reference Materials? Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 410, 2045-2049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-018-0916-y
[29]
Janssen, S.E., Lepak, R.F., Tate, M.T., Ogorek, J.M., DeWild, J.F., Babiarz, C.L., et al. (2019) Rapid Pre-Concentration of Mercury in Solids and Water for Isotopic Analysis. Analytica Chimica Acta, 1054, 95-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2018.12.026
[30]
WHO (2026) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Fourth Edition Incorporating the First and Second Addenda. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064
[31]
Legg, E.D., Ouboter, P.E. and Wright, M.A.P. (2015) Small-Scale Gold Mining Related Mercury Contamination in the Guianas: A Review. World Wildlife Fund. https://wwflac.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/mercury_contamination_in_the_guianas__2015.pdf
[32]
Crespo-Lopez, M.E., Augusto-Oliveira, M., Lopes-Araújo, A., Santos-Sacramento, L., Yuki Takeda, P., Macchi, B.d.M., et al. (2021) Mercury: What Can We Learn from the Amazon? Environment International, 146, Article 106223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106223
[33]
Diringer, S.E., Feingold, B.J., Ortiz, E.J., Gallis, J.A., Araújo-Flores, J.M., Berky, A., et al. (2015) River Transport of Mercury from Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining and Risks for Dietary Mercury Exposure in Madre De Dios, Peru. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 17, 478-487. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4em00567h
[34]
Martinez, G., McCord, S.A., Driscoll, C.T., Todorova, S., Wu, S., Araújo, J.F., et al. (2018) Mercury Contamination in Riverine Sediments and Fish Associated with Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Madre De Dios, Peru. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15, Article 1584. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15081584
[35]
Fernandes Azevedo, B. et al. (2012) Toxic Effects of Mercury on the Cardiovascular and Central Nervous Systems. Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, 2012, Article ID 949048. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/949048
[36]
Ashe, K. (2012) Elevated Mercury Concentrations in Humans of Madre De Dios, Peru. PLOS ONE, 7, e33305. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0033305
[37]
Meutia, A.A., Lumowa, R. and Sakakibara, M. (2022) Indonesian Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining—A Narrative Literature Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19, Article 3955. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19073955
[38]
Castilhos, Z.C., Rodrigues-Filho, S., Rodrigues, A.P.C., Villas-B？as, R.C., Siegel, S., Veiga, M.M., et al. (2006) Mercury Contamination in Fish from Gold Mining Areas in Indonesia and Human Health Risk Assessment. Science of The Total Environment, 368, 320-325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.01.039
[39]
Barkdull, N.M., Carling, G.T., Rey, K. and Yudiantoro, D.F. (2019) Comparison of Mercury Contamination in Four Indonesian Watersheds Affected by Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining of Varying Scale. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 230, Article No. 214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-019-4271-1
[40]
Kumar, V. et al. (2023) A Retrospection on Mercury Contamination, Bioaccumulation, and Toxicity in Diverse Environments: Current Insights and Future Prospects. Sustainability, 15, Article 13292.
[41]
K？ster-Rasmussen, R., Westergaard, M.L., Brasholt, M., Gutierrez, R., J？rs, E. and Thomsen, J.F. (2016) Mercury Pollution from Small-Scale Gold Mining Can Be Stopped by Implementing the Gravity-Borax Method—A Two-Year Follow-Up Study from Two Mining Communities in the Philippines. NEW SOLUTIONS: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy, 25, 567-587. https://doi.org/10.1177/1048291115607929
[42]
Veiga, M.M. and Gunson, A.J. (2020) Gravity Concentration in Artisanal Gold Mining. Minerals, 10, Article 1026. https://doi.org/10.3390/min10111026
[43]
Maganga, S.P., Mdee, O.J., Kombe, G.G. and Ntalikwa, J.W. (2023) Situational Analysis of Gold Processing Practices at Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Tanzania. Tanzanian Journal of Engineering and Technology, 42, 27-43.
[44]
Nyanza, E.C. (2020) Exposure to Arsenic and Mercury: Associated Pregnancy Outcomes, and Early Infant Developmental Outcomes in Gold Mining Areas in Tanzania. https://prism.ucalgary.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/8fc07682-b9c5-44b5-b5ad-e68b6bec78f8/content
[45]
Spiegel, S., Keane, S., Metcalf, S. and Veiga, M. (2015) Implications of the Minamata Convention on Mercury for Informal Gold Mining in Sub-Saharan Africa: From Global Policy Debates to Grassroots Implementation? Environment, Development and Sustainability, 17, 765-785. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-014-9574-1
[46]
Imparato, N. (2010) Artisanal Gold and Transformational Exchange: Toward a Public-Private Partnership in Tanzania. Journal of Cleaner Production, 18, 462-470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.10.025
[47]
Hansen, M.W. (2013) Reaping the Rewards of Foreign Direct Investment: Linkages between Extractive MNCs and Local Firms in Tanzania. DIIS Working Paper. https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/122288
[48]
？kerblom, S., Zdanowicz, C., Campeau, A., Soerensen, A.L. and Hewitt, J. (2022) Spatial and Temporal Variations in Riverine Mercury in the Mackenzie River Basin, Canada, from Community-Based Water Quality Monitoring Data. Science of The Total Environment, 853, Article 158674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158674
[49]
Asumda, D., Situma, F.D., Kariuki Muigua, D. and Issahaku, S. (2022) Available Legal Regime and the Use of Mercury for Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana. https://www.academia.edu/download/90909091/8414.pdf
[50]
Hilson, G., Hilson, C.J. and Pardie, S. (2007) Improving Awareness of Mercury Pollution in Small-Scale Gold Mining Communities: Challenges and Ways Forward in Rural Ghana. Environmental Research, 103, 275-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2006.09.010
[51]
Veiga, M.M., Angeloci, G., ？iquen, W. and Seccatore, J. (2015) Reducing Mercury Pollution by Training Peruvian Artisanal Gold Miners. Journal of Cleaner Production, 94, 268-277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.01.087
[52]
Manzila, A.N. (2022) A Study of Alternative Techniques to Mercury Amalgamation for Gold Extraction in Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining. https://open.uct.ac.za/handle/11427/37625
[53]
Quaye, S.A. (2013) Recurrent Expenditure of Urban Water Supply Systems-Case Study of ATMA and Kumasi Water Supply Systems. PhD Thesis, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. https://ir.knust.edu.gh/handle/123456789/5430
[54]
McCallum, S.R. (2018) Private Sector Impact Investment in Water Purification Infrastructure in South Africa. PhD Thesis, Stellenbosch University. https://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/103283
[55]
Schwartz, M., Smits, K. and Phelan, T. (2023) Quantifying Mercury Use in Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining for the Minamata Convention on Mercury’s National Action Plans: Approaches and Policy Implications. Environmental Science & Policy, 141, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2022.12.002
[56]
Ha, E., Basu, N., Bose-O’Reilly, S., Dórea, J.G., McSorley, E., Sakamoto, M., et al. (2017) Current Progress on Understanding the Impact of Mercury on Human Health. Environmental Research, 152, 419-433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.06.042
