Pestivirusbovis viruses are pathogens of bovines and other domestic and wild ruminant species, causing economic losses on zootechnics. Investigations on genetic characteristics are required to clarify the epidemiology of the species genotypes and to elucidate specific aspects at molecular level, such as the ways of diffusion, transmissibility, virulence or mechanisms to escape host defense. In order to study the taxonomy of the species, with particular focus on genotype b, deposited 5'-UTR and Npro sequences of strains have been evaluated by the primary and secondary structure analysis, by comparison with molecular characteristics of previously reported virus isolates in the genus Pestivirus. The strains were clustered into genotypes and sub genotypes, showing the heterogeneity of the P.bovis species. In relation to geographic distribution, genotype b resulted in a cosmopolitan distribution. Other genomic clusters were related to restricted regions. Genotype b showed a wider host spectrum, in contrast to the other groups. Cattle were the most common host in all the genotypes of the P.bovis species. The application of genetic characterization methods is essential to clarify the taxonomical status of strains and should not be limited to a single procedure or the evaluation of primary sequence structure, especially of highly variable parts of the genome. The analysis of the secondary structure of relevant genomic sequences may help to discriminate atypical and genetically different clusters. Furthermore, information obtained by molecular investigations provides essential elements on circulating virus populations and their distribution in animal hosts, with direct implications on control and prophylaxis strategies. The occurrence of P.bovis sub genotype b2 in mosquitoes deserves particular attention. Other investigations will be necessary to confirm the phenomenon and understand its extent, which has the potential to exponentially enhance the diffusion of the virus.
References
[1]
International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) (2025) Virus Taxonomy: The ICTV Report on Virus Classification and Taxon Nomenclature. 10th Report. https://ictv.global/report/genome
[2]
European Union (EU) (2016) Regulation (EU) 2016/429 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 March 2016 on Transmissible Animal Diseases and Amending and Repealing Certain Acts in the Area of Animal Health ‘Animal Health Law’. Official Journal of the European Union, 1-208.
[3]
EU (2018) Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2018/1629 of 25 July 2018 Amending the List of Diseases Set out in Annex II to Regulation (EU) 2016/429 of the European Parliament and of the Council on Transmissible Animal Diseases and Amending and Repealing Certain Acts in the Area of Animal Health ‘Animal Health Law’. Official Journal of the European Union, 11-15.
[4]
EU (2018) Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2018/1882 of 3 December 2018 on the Application of Certain Disease Prevention and Control Rules to Categories of Listed Diseases and Establishing a List of Species and Groups of Species Posing a Considerable Risk for the Spread of Those Listed Diseases. Official Journal of the European Union, 21-29.
[5]
EU (2020) Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2020/689 of 17 December 2019 Supplementing Regulation (EU) 2016/429 of the European Parliament and of the Council as Regards Rules for Surveillance, Eradication Programmes, and Disease-Free Status for Certain Listed and Emerging Diseases. Official Journal of the European Union, 211.
[6]
EU (2021) Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/620 of 15 April 2021 Laying down Rules for the Application of Regulation (EU) 2016/429 of the European Parliament and of the Council as Regards the Approval of the Disease-Free and Non-Vaccination Status of Certain Member States or Zones or Compartments Thereof as Regards Certain Listed Diseases and the Approval of Eradication Programmes for Those Listed Diseases. Official Journal of the European Union, 78.
[7]
EU (2022) Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2022/1218 of 14 July 2022 Amending Certain Annexes to Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/620 as Regards the Approval of the Disease-Free Status of Certain Member States or Zones Thereof as Regards Certain Listed Diseases and the Approval of Eradication Programmes for Certain Listed Diseases. Official Journal of the European Union, 65-74.
[8]
EU (2024) Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2024/2032 of 29 July 2024 Amending Certain Annexes to Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/620 as Regards the Approval or Withdrawal of the Disease-Free Status of Certain Member States or Zones Thereof as Regards Certain Listed Diseases and the Approval of Eradication Programmes for Certain Listed Diseases. Official Journal of the European Union.
[9]
Bolin, S.R., McClurkin, A.W., Cutlip, R.C. and Coria, M.F. (1985) Response of Cattle Persistently Infected with Noncytopathic Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus to Vaccination for Bovine Viral Diarrhea and to Subsequent Challenge Exposure with Cytopathic Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 46, 2467-2470. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.1985.46.12.2467
[10]
Kuta, A., Polak, M.P., Larska, M. and Żmudziński, J.F. (2013) Predominance of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus 1b and 1d Subtypes during Eight Years of Survey in Poland. Veterinary Microbiology, 166, 639-644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.07.002
[11]
Giammarioli, M., Ceglie, L., Rossi, E., Bazzucchi, M., Casciari, C., Petrini, S., et al. (2015) Increased Genetic Diversity of BVDV-1: Recent Findings and Implications Thereof. Virus Genes, 50, 147-151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11262-014-1132-2
[12]
Deng, R. and Brock, K.V. (1992) Molecular Cloning and Nucleotide Sequence of a Pestivirus Genome, Noncytopathic Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Strain Sd-1. Virology, 191, 867-879. https://doi.org/10.1016/0042-6822(92)90262-n
[13]
Bazzucchi, M., Bertolotti, L., Giammarioli, M., Rossi, E., Petrini, S., Rosati, S., et al. (2017) Complete Genome Sequence of a Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Subgenotype 1g Strain Isolated in Italy. Genome Announcements, 5, e00263-17. https://doi.org/10.1128/genomea.00263-17
[14]
Mirosław, P. and Polak, M.P. (2020) Variability of E2 Protein-Coding Sequences of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus in Polish Cattle. Virus Genes, 56, 515-521. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11262-020-01756-2
[15]
Ostachuk, A. (2016) Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Structural Protein E2 as a Complement Regulatory Protein. Archives of Virology, 161, 1769-1782. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00705-016-2835-6
[16]
El Omari, K., Iourin, O., Harlos, K., Grimes, J.M. and Stuart, D.I. (2013) Structure of a Pestivirus Envelope Glycoprotein E2 Clarifies Its Role in Cell Entry. Cell Reports, 3, 30-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2012.12.001
[17]
Asfor, A.S., Wakeley, P.R., Drew, T.W. and Paton, D.J. (2014) Recombinant Pestivirus E2 Glycoproteins Prevent Viral Attachment to Permissive and Non-Permissive Cells with Different Efficiency. Virus Research, 189, 147-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2014.05.016
[18]
Deng, R. and Brock, K.V. (1993) 5’ and 3’ Untranslated Regions of Pestivirus Genome: Primary and Secondary Structure Analyses. Nucleic Acids Research, 21, 1949-1957. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/21.8.1949
[19]
Harasawa, R. (1994) Comparative Analysis of the 5’ Non-Coding Region of Pestivirus RNA Detected from Live Virus Vaccines. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 56, 961-964. https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.56.961
[20]
Rajput, M.K.S., Abdelsalam, K., Darweesh, M.F., Braun, L.J., Kerkvliet, J., Hoppe, A.D., et al. (2017) Both Cytopathic and Non-Cytopathic Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV) Induced Autophagy at a Similar Rate. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology, 193, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetimm.2017.09.006
[21]
Harasawa, R. and Giangaspero, M. (1998) A Novel Method for Pestivirus Genotyping Based on Palindromic Nucleotide Substitutions in the 5’-Untranslated Region. Journal of Virological Methods, 70, 225-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-0934(97)00180-8
[22]
Giangaspero, M. and Harasawa, R. (2007) Numerical Taxonomy of the Genus Pestivirus Based on Palindromic Nucleotide Substitutions in the 5’ Untranslated Region. Journal of Virological Methods, 146, 375-388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jviromet.2007.07.009
[23]
Castrucci, G. (1978) Togaviridae. In: Infezioni da virus degli animalidomestici, Editor Esculapio.
[24]
Franki, R.I.B., Fauquet, C.M., Knudson, D.L. and Braun, F. (1991) Classification and Nomenclature of Viruses: Fifth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Springer.
[25]
Ridpath, J.F., Bolin, S.R. and Dubovi, E.J. (1994) Segregation of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus into Genotypes. Virology, 205, 66-74. https://doi.org/10.1006/viro.1994.1620
[26]
Peterhans, E., Bachofen, C., Stalder, H. and Schweizer, M. (2010) Cytopathic Bovine Viral Diarrhea Viruses (BVDV): Emerging Pestiviruses Doomed to Extinction. Veterinary Research, 41, 44. https://doi.org/10.1051/vetres/2010016
[27]
Harasawa, R. (1996) Phylogenetic Analysis of Pestivirus Based on the 5’ Untranslated Region. Acta Virologica, 40, 49-54.
[28]
Giangaspero, M., Harasawa, R. and Verhulst, A. (1997) Genotypic Analysis of the 5’-Untranslated Region of a Pestivirus Strain Isolated from Human Leucocytes. Microbiology and Immunology, 41, 829-834. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1997.tb01936.x
[29]
Giangaspero, M., Vacirca, G., Harasawa, R., Büttner, M., Panuccio, A., De Giuli Morghen, C., et al. (2001) Genotypes of Pestivirus RNA Detected in Live Virus Vaccines for Human Use. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 63, 723-733. https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.63.723
[30]
Baule, C., van Vuuren, M., Lowings, J.P. and Belák, S. (1997) Genetic Heterogeneity of Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Viruses Isolated in Southern Africa. Virus Research, 52, 205-220. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0168-1702(97)00119-6
[31]
Vilček, Š., Paton, D.J., Durkovic, B., Strojny, L., Ibata, G., Moussa, A., et al. (2001) Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus Genotype 1 Can Be Separated into at Least Eleven Genetic Groups. Archives of Virology, 146, 99-115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s007050170194
[32]
Couvreur, B., Letellier, C., Collard, A., Quenon, P., Dehan, P., Hamers, C., et al. (2002) Genetic and Antigenic Variability in Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV) Isolates from Belgium. Virus Research, 85, 17-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0168-1702(02)00014-x
[33]
Ciulli, S., Battilani, M., Scagliarini, A., Ostanello, F. and Prosperi, S. (2003) Identificazione e caratterizzazione di ceppi di BVDV isolati da soggetti immunotolleranti nella provincia di Bologna. VeterinariaItaliana, 38, 65-72.
[34]
Hurtado, A., Garcı́a-Pérez, A.L., Aduriz, G. and Juste, R.A. (2003) Genetic Diversity of Ruminant Pestiviruses from Spain. Virus Research, 92, 67-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0168-1702(02)00315-5
[35]
Tajima, M., Frey, H., Yamato, O., Maede, Y., Moennig, V., Scholz, H., et al. (2001) Prevalence of Genotypes 1 and 2 of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus in Lower Saxony, Germany. Virus Research, 76, 31-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0168-1702(01)00244-1
[36]
Deng, M., Ji, S., Fei, W., Raza, S., He, C., Chen, Y., et al. (2015) Prevalence Study and Genetic Typing of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV) in Four Bovine Species in China. PLOS ONE, 10, e0134777. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0134777
[37]
Gao, S., Luo, J., Du, J., Lang, Y., Cong, G., Shao, J., et al. (2013) Serological and Molecular Evidence for Natural Infection of Bactrian Camels with Multiple Subgenotypes of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus in Western China. Veterinary Microbiology, 163, 172-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.12.015
[38]
Wang, W., Shi, X., Tong, Q., Wu, Y., Xia, M.Q., Ji, Y., et al. (2014) A Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Type 1a Strain in China: Isolation, Identification, and Experimental Infection in Calves. Virology Journal, 11, Article No. 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-422x-11-8
[39]
Weng, X.G., Song, Q.J., Wu, Q., Liu, M.C., Wang, M.L. and Wang, J.F. (2015) Genetic Characterization of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Strains in Beijing, China and Innate Immune Responses of Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells in Persistently Infected Dairy Cattle. Journal of Veterinary Science, 16, 491-500. https://doi.org/10.4142/jvs.2015.16.4.491
[40]
Xue, F., Zhu, Y.M., Li, J., Zhu, L., Ren, X., Feng, J., et al. (2010) Genotyping of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Viruses from Cattle in China between 2005 and 2008. Veterinary Microbiology, 143, 379-383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.11.010
[41]
Zhang, S.Q., Tan, B., Guo, L., Wang, F. X., Zhu, H.W., Wen, Y.J. and Cheng, S. (2014) Genetic Diversity of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Viruses in Commercial Bovine Serum Batches of Chinese Origin. Infection, Genetics and Evolution, 27, 230-233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2014.07.021
[42]
Zhong, F., Li, N., Huang, X., Guo, Y., Chen, H., Wang, X., et al. (2011) Genetic Typing and Epidemiologic Observation of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus in Western China. Virus Genes, 42, 204-207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11262-010-0558-4
Bachofen, C., Stalder, H., Braun, U., Hilbe, M., Ehrensperger, F. and Peterhans, E. (2008) Co-Existence of Genetically and Antigenically Diverse Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Viruses in an Endemic Situation. Veterinary Microbiology, 131, 93-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.02.023
[45]
Alpay, G. and Yeşilbağ, K. (2015) Serological Relationships among Subgroups in Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Genotype 1 (BVDV-1). Veterinary Microbiology, 175, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2014.10.034
[46]
Pan, J., Jiang, J., Mi, S., Chen, X., Duan, R., Gao, S., et al. (2025) Molecular Characteristics of a Potentially Novel BVDV (Pestivirusbovis) Genotype 1b Isolate from Commercial Fetal Bovine Serum. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12, Article 1629211. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1629211
[47]
Giangaspero, M. and Apicella, C. (2014) Improved Palindromic Nucleotide Substitutions Software Version 2.0. Genotyping Based on the Secondary Structure Alignment in the 5 Untranslated Region of Pestivirus RNA. Journal of Bioinformatics and Intelligent Control, 3, 39-64. https://doi.org/10.1166/jbic.2014.1064
[48]
Giangaspero, M. and Apicella, C. (2018) Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Type 1 Current Taxonomy According to Palindromic Nucleotide Substitutions Method. Journal of Virological Methods, 256, 37-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jviromet.2018.02.003
[49]
Giangaspero, M., Decaro, N., Turno, P., Apicella, C., Gargano, P. and Buonavoglia, C. (2019) Pathogen Spread and Globalization: The Case of Pestivirus Heterogeneity in Southern Italy. Research in Veterinary Science, 125, 100-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2019.05.017
[50]
Thompson, J.D., Gibson, T.J., Plewniak, F., Jaenmougin, F. and Higgins, D.G. (1997) The CLUSTAL X Windows Interface: Flexible Strategies for Multiple Sequence Alignment Aided by Quality Analysis Tools. Nucleic Acids Research, 25, 4876-4882. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/25.24.4876
[51]
Saitou, N. and Nei, M. (1987) The Neighbor-Joining Method: A New Method for Reconstructing Phylogenetic Trees. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 4, 406-425.
[52]
Zuker, M. and Stiegler, P. (1981) Optimal Computer Folding of Large RNA Sequences Using Thermodynamics and Auxiliary Information. Nucleic Acids Research, 9, 133-148. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/9.1.133
[53]
Freier, S.M., Kierzek, R., Jaeger, J.A., Sugimoto, N., Caruthers, M.H., Neilson, T., etal. (1986) Improved Free-Energy Parameters for Predictions of RNA Duplex Stability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 83, 9373-9377. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.83.24.9373
[54]
Topliff, C.L. and Kelling, C.L. (1998) Virulence Markers in the 5’ Untranslated Region of Genotype 2 Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Isolates. Virology, 250, 164-172. https://doi.org/10.1006/viro.1998.9350
[55]
Giangaspero, M., Harasawa, R., Weber, L. and Belloli, A. (2008) Genoepidemiological Evaluation of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus 2 Species Based on Secondary Structures in the 5’ Untranslated Region. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 70, 571-580. https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.70.571
[56]
Oguzoglu, T.C., Tan, M.T., Toplu, N., Demir, A.B., Bilge-Dagalp, S., Karaoglu, T., etal. (2009) Border Disease Virus (BDV) Infections of Small Ruminants in Turkey: A New BDV Subgroup? Veterinary Microbiology, 135, 374-379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.09.085
[57]
Smith, D.B., Meyers, G., Bukh, J., Gould, E.A., Monath, T., Scott Muerhoff, A., et al. (2017) Proposed Revision to the Taxonomy of the Genus Pestivirus, Family Flaviviridae. Journal of General Virology, 98, 2106-2112. https://doi.org/10.1099/jgv.0.000873
[58]
Firth, C., Bhat, M., Firth, M.A., Williams, S.H., Frye, M.J., Simmonds, P., et al. (2014) Detection of Zoonotic Pathogens and Characterization of Novel Viruses Carried by Commensal Rattus Norvegicus in New York City. mBio, 5, e01933-14. https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.01933-14
[59]
Barros, S.C., Ramos, F., Paupério, S., Thompson, G. and Fevereiro, M. (2006) Phylogenetic Analysis of Portuguese Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus. Virus Research, 118, 192-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2005.12.009
[60]
Yeşilbağ, K., Alpay, G. and Becher, P. (2017) Variability and Global Distribution of Subgenotypes of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus. Viruses, 9, Article 128. https://doi.org/10.3390/v9060128
[61]
Giangaspero, M., Yesilbag, K. and Apicella, C. (2018) Who’s Who in the Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Type 1 Species: Genotypes L and R. Virus Research, 256, 50-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2018.07.009
[62]
Deng, M., Chen, N., Guidarini, C., Xu, Z., Zhang, J., Cai, L., et al. (2020) Prevalence and Genetic Diversity of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus in Dairy Herds of China. Veterinary Microbiology, 242, Article 108565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.108565
[63]
Tian, B., Cai, D., Li, W., Bu, Q., Wang, M., Ye, G., et al. (2021) Identification and Genotyping of a New Subtype of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus 1 Isolated from Cattle with Diarrhea. Archives of Virology, 166, 1259-1262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00705-021-04990-7
[64]
Mao, L., Li, W., Yang, L., Wang, J., Cheng, S., Wei, Y., et al. (2016) Primary Surveys on Molecular Epidemiology of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus 1 Infecting Goats in Jiangsu Province, China. BMC Veterinary Research, 12, Article No. 181. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-016-0820-7
[65]
Shi, H., Li, H., Zhang, Y., Yang, L., Hu, Y., Wang, Z., et al. (2020) Genetic Diversity of Bovine Pestiviruses Detected in Backyard Cattle Farms between 2014 and 2019 in Henan Province, China. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, Article 197. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00197
[66]
Giangaspero, M. and Zhang, S. (2023) Pestivirus A Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Type 1 Species Genotypes Circulating in China and Turkey. Open Veterinary Journal, 13, 903-931. https://doi.org/10.5455/ovj.2023.v13.i7.12
[67]
Decaro, N., Lucente, M.S., Lanave, G., Gargano, P., Larocca, V., Losurdo, M., et al. (2016) Evidence for Circulation of Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus Type 2c in Ruminants in Southern Italy. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 64, 1935-1944. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.12592
[68]
Mirshamsy, H., Shafyi, A. and Bahrami, S. (1970) The Occurrence of Bovine Virus Diarrhea/Mucosal Disease in Iran. ArchivesofRaziInstitute, 22, 194-201.
[69]
Kargar Moakhar, R., Ahuraei, P., Hesami, M., Khedmati, K., Gholami, M.R. and Kazemi, A. (1995) Reporting Presence and Prevalence of BVD/MD in Cattle Farms around Tehran.JournalofPajoheshvaSazandegi, 28, 112-116.
[70]
Khezri, M. (2015) Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD): A Review Emphasizing on Iran Perspective. Journal of Advanced Veterinary and Animal Research, 2, 240-251. https://doi.org/10.5455/javar.2015.b92
[71]
Khodakaram-Tafti, A., Mohammadi, A. and Farjani Kish, G.H. (2016) Molecular Characterization and Phylogenetic Analysis of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus in Dairy Herds of Fars Province, Iran. IranianJournalofVeterinaryResearch, 17, 89-97.
[72]
Giangaspero, M. and Harasawa, R. (2008) Genetic Variation of Classical Swine Fever Virus Based on Palindromic Nucleotide Substitutions, a Genetic Marker in the 5’ Untranslated Region of RNA. VeterinariaItaliana, 44, 305-318.
[73]
Giangaspero, M. and Harasawa, R. (2011) Species Characterization in the Genus Pestivirus According to Palindromic Nucleotide Substitutions in the 5’-Untranslated Region. Journal of Virological Methods, 174, 166-172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jviromet.2011.04.004
[74]
Harasawa, R., Giangaspero, M., Ibata, G. and Paton, D.J. (2000) Giraffe Strain of Pestivirus: Its Taxonomic Status Based on the 5’-Untranslated Region. Microbiology and Immunology, 44, 915-921. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1348-0421.2000.tb02583.x
Kim, S.G., Anderson, R.R., Yu, J.Z., Zylich, N.C., Kinde, H., Carman, S., et al. (2009) Genotyping and Phylogenetic Analysis of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Isolates from BVDV Infected Alpacas in North America. Veterinary Microbiology, 136, 209-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.10.029
[77]
Xia, H., Vijayaraghavan, B., Belák, S. and Liu, L. (2011) Detection and Identification of the Atypical Bovine Pestiviruses in Commercial Foetal Bovine Serum Batches. PLOS ONE, 6, e28553. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0028553
[78]
Deng, Y., Shan, T., Tong, W., Zheng, X., Guo, Y., Zheng, H., et al. (2014) Genomic Characterization of a Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus 1 Isolate from Swine. Archives of Virology, 159, 2513-2517. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00705-014-2064-9
[79]
Strong, R., Errington, J., Cook, R., Ross-Smith, N., Wakeley, P. and Steinbach, F. (2013) Increased Phylogenetic Diversity of Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus Type 1 Isolates in England and Wales since 2001. Veterinary Microbiology, 162, 315-320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.09.006
[80]
Li, Y., Liu, Z. and Wu, Y. (1983) Isolation and Identification of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus-Mucosal Disease Virus Strain Changchun 184. Chinese Journal of Veterinary Science, 3, 546-553.
[81]
Wang, X., Tu, C., Li, H., Xuan, H., Zhu, W., Fei, E., et al. (1996) Comparison of the Main Region within P125 Gene of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus. Chinese Journal of Veterinary Science, 16, 546-553.
[82]
Meyers, G., Tautz, N., Becher, P., Thiel, H.J. and Kümmerer, B.M. (1996) Recovery of Cytopathogenic and Noncytopathogenic Bovine Viral Diarrhea Viruses from cDNA Constructs. Journal of Virology, 70, 8606-8613. https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.70.12.8606-8613.1996
[83]
Zhang, S.Q., Tan, B., Ding, Y., Wang, F., Guo, L., Wen, Y., et al. (2014) Complete Genome Sequence and Pathogenesis of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus JL-1 Isolate from Cattle in China. Virology Journal, 11, Article No. 67. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-422x-11-67
[84]
Zhu, L., Xing, Z., Jia, C., Wang, T., Gai, X., Song, L., et al. (2014) Complete Genomic Sequence of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Strain CC13B. Chinese Journal of Veterinary Science, 34, 1065-1071.
[85]
Qi, F., Gustad, T., Lewis, T.L. and Berry, E.S. (1993) The Nucleotide Sequence of the 5’-Untranslated Region of Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus: Its Use as a Probe in Rapid Detection of Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Viruses and Border Disease Viruses. Molecular and Cellular Probes, 7, 349-356. https://doi.org/10.1006/mcpr.1993.1052
[86]
Yamamoto, T., Kozasa, T., Aoki, H., Sekiguchi, H., Morino, S. and Nakamura, S. (2008) Genomic Analyses of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Viruses Isolated from Cattle Imported into Japan between 1991 and 2005. Veterinary Microbiology, 127, 386-391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2007.08.020
[87]
Deng, Y., Sun, C.Q., Cao, S.J., Lin, T., Yuan, S.S., Zhang, H.B., et al. (2012) High Prevalence of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus 1 in Chinese Swine Herds. Veterinary Microbiology, 159, 490-493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.04.023
[88]
Booth, R.E., Thomas, C.J., El-Attar, L.M., Gunn, G. and Brownlie, J. (2013) A Phylogenetic Analysis of Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus (BVDV) Isolates from Six Different Regions of the UK and Links to Animal Movement Data. Veterinary Research, 44, Article No. 43. https://doi.org/10.1186/1297-9716-44-43
[89]
Fall, G., Diallo, M., Loucoubar, C., Faye, O. and Sall, A.A. (2014) Vector Competence of Culex Neavei and Culex Quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) from Senegal for Lineages 1, 2, Koutango and a Putative New Lineage of West Nile Virus. The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 90, 747-754. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.13-0405
[90]
Ughasi, J., Bekard, H.E., Coulibaly, M., Adabie-Gomez, D., Gyapong, J., Appawu, M., et al. (2012) Mansonia Africana and Mansonia Uniformis Are Vectors in the Transmission of Wuchereriabancrofti Lymphatic Filariasis in Ghana. Parasites & Vectors, 5, Article No. 89. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-5-89
[91]
Schirrmeier, H., Strebelow, G., Depner, K., Hoffmann, B. and Beer, M. (2004) Genetic and Antigenic Characterization of an Atypical Pestivirus Isolate, a Putative Member of a Novel Pestivirus Species. Journal of General Virology, 85, 3647-3652. https://doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.80238-0
[92]
Kirkland, P.D., Frost, M.J., Finlaison, D.S., King, K.R., Ridpath, J.F. and Gu, X. (2007) Identification of a Novel Virus in Pigs—Bungowannah Virus: A Possible New Species of Pestivirus. Virus Research, 129, 26-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2007.05.002
[93]
Liu, L., Kampa, J., Belák, S. and Baule, C. (2009) Virus Recovery and Full-Length Sequence Analysis of Atypical Bovine Pestivirus Th/04_khonkaen. Veterinary Microbiology, 138, 62-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.03.006
[94]
Mao, L., Li, W., Zhang, W., Yang, L. and Jiang, J. (2012) Genome Sequence of a Novel HoBi-Like Pestivirus in China. Journal of Virology, 86, 12444-12444. https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.02159-12
[95]
Haider, N., Rahman, M.S., Khan, S.U., Mikolon, A., Gurley, E.S., Osmani, M.G., et al. (2014) Identification and Epidemiology of a Rare HoBi-Like Pestivirus Strain in Bangladesh. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 61, 193-198. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.12218
[96]
Mishra, N., Rajukumar, K., Pateriya, A., Kumar, M., Dubey, P., Behera, S.P., et al. (2014) Identification and Molecular Characterization of Novel and Divergent HoBi-Like Pestiviruses from Naturally Infected Cattle in India. Veterinary Microbiology, 174, 239-246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2014.09.017
[97]
Lanave, G., Decaro, N., Lucente, M.S., Guercio, A., Cavaliere, N., Purpari, G., et al. (2017) Circulation of Multiple Subtypes of Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus Type 1 with No Evidence for HoBi-Like Pestivirus in Cattle Herds of Southern Italy. Infection, Genetics and Evolution, 50, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2017.02.009
[98]
Leedom Larson, K., Pettit, K. and Zaabel, P. (2016) Bungowannah Virus/Atypical Porcine Pestivirus. Swine Health Information Center and Center for Food Security and Public Health.
[99]
De Mia, G.M., Greiser‐Wilke, I., Feliziani, F., Giammarioli, M. and De Giuseppe, A. (2005) Genetic Characterization of a Caprine Pestivirus as the First Member of a Putative Novel Pestivirus Subgroup. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B, 52, 206-210. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0450.2005.00850.x.
[100]
Giammarioli, M., La Rocca, S.A., Steinbach, F., Casciari, C. and De Mia, G.M. (2011) Genetic and Antigenic Typing of Border Disease Virus (BDV) Isolates from Italy Reveals the Existence of a Novel BDV Group. Veterinary Microbiology, 147, 231-236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.06.027.
[101]
Luzzago, C., Lauzi, S., Ebranati, E., Giammarioli, M., Moreno, A., Cannella, V., et al. (2014) Extended Genetic Diversity of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus and Frequency of Genotypes and Subtypes in Cattle in Italy between 1995 and 2013. BioMed Research International, 2014, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/147145
[102]
Oğuzoğlu, T.Ç., Koç, B.T., Coşkun, N., Doğan, F. and Duran-Yelken, S. (2019) Endless Variety for Bovine Virus Diarrhea Viruses: New Members of a Novel Subgroup into Pestivirus a from Turkey. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 51, 1083-1087. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-018-01787-w
[103]
Timurkan, M.Ö. and Aydın, H. (2019) Increased Genetic Diversity of BVDV Strains Circulating in Eastern Anatolia, Turkey: First Detection of BVDV-3 in Turkey. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 51, 1953-1961. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-019-01901-6
[104]
Yeşilbağ, K., Förster, C., Ozyiğit, M.O., Alpay, G., Tuncer, P., Thiel, H., et al. (2014) Characterisation of Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus (BVDV) Isolates from an Outbreak with Haemorrhagic Enteritis and Severe Pneumonia. Veterinary Microbiology, 169, 42-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.12.005
[105]
Oğuzoğlu, T.Ç., Muz, D., Yılmaz, V., Timurkan, M.Ö., Alkan, F., Akça, Y., et al. (2012) Molecular Characteristics of Bovine Virus Diarrhoea Virus 1 Isolates from Turkey: Approaches for an Eradication Programme. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 59, 303-310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1865-1682.2011.01272.x
[106]
Becher, P., Orlich, M., Shannon, A.D., Horner, G., Konig, M. and Thiel, H.J. (1997) Phylogenetic Analysis of Pestiviruses from Domestic and Wild Ruminants. Journal of General Virology, 78, 1357-1366. https://doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-78-6-1357
[107]
Harasawa, R. and Mizusawa, H. (1995) Demonstration and Genotyping of Pestivirus RNA from Mammalian Cell Lines. Microbiology and Immunology, 39, 979-985. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1995.tb03301.x
[108]
Giangaspero, M., Zhang, S. and Apicella, C. (2019) Heterogeneity of Pestivirus Species in Asia. AdvancesinMicrobiology, 9, 266-342. https://doi.org/10.4236/aim.2019.93019
[109]
Li, W., Mao, L., Zhao, Y., Sun, Y., He, K. and Jiang, J. (2013) Detection of Border Disease Virus (BDV) in Goat Herds Suffering Diarrhea in Eastern China. Virology Journal, 10, Article No. 80. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-422x-10-80
[110]
Toplu, N., Oguzoglu, T.Ç. and Albayrak, H. (2012) Dual Infection of Fetal and Neonatal Small Ruminants with Border Disease Virus and Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus (PPRV): Neuronal Tropism of PPRV as a Novel Finding. Journal of Comparative Pathology, 146, 289-297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcpa.2011.07.004
[111]
Giangaspero, M., Steinbach, F., Strong, R., Decaro, N., Buonavoglia, C., Domenis, L., et al. (2020) Characterization of Internal Ribosome Entry Sites According to Secondary Structure Analysis to Classify Border Disease Virus Strains. Journal of Virological Methods, 275, Article 113704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jviromet.2019.113704
[112]
Bhaskar, N., Ravishankar, C., Rajasekhar, R., Sumod, K., Sumithra, T.G., John, K., etal. (2015) Molecular Typing and Phylogenetic Analysis of Classical Swine Fever Virus Isolates from Kerala, India. VirusDisease, 26, 260-266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13337-015-0271-y
[113]
Lin, Y.J., Chien, M.S., Deng, M.C. and Huang, C.C. (2007) Complete Sequence of a Subgroup 3.4 Strain of Classical Swine Fever Virus from Taiwan Region. Virus Genes, 35, 737-744. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11262-007-0154-4
[114]
Harasawa, R. and Giangaspero, M. (1999) Genetic Variation in the 5’ End and NS5B Regions of Classical Swine Fever Virus Genome among Japanese Isolates. Microbiology and Immunology, 43, 373-379. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1999.tb02418.x
[115]
Sakoda, Y., Ozawa, S., Damrongwatanapokin, S., Sato, M., Ishikawa, K. and Fukusho, A. (1999) Genetic Heterogeneity of Porcine and Ruminant Pestiviruses Mainly Isolated in Japan. Veterinary Microbiology, 65, 75-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-1135(98)00284-3
[116]
Giangaspero, M. and Zhang, S. (2023) Circulation of Classical Swine Fever Virus (CSFV) Strains of Bovine Origin in China and India. The Veterinary Journal, 59, 41-49.
[117]
Chakraborty, A.K., Karam, A., Mukherjee, P., Barkalita, L., Borah, P., Das, S., et al. (2018) Detection of Classical Swine Fever Virus E2 Gene in Cattle Serum Samples from Cattle Herds of Meghalaya. VirusDisease, 29, 89-95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13337-018-0433-9
[118]
Giangaspero, M. and Zhang, S. (2020) Genomic Characteristics of Classical Swine Fever Virus Strains of Bovine Origin According to Primary and Secondary Sequence–Structure Analysis. Open Veterinary Journal, 10, 94-115. https://doi.org/10.4314/ovj.v10i1.15
[119]
Muasya, D., Van Leeuwen, J., Gitau, G., McKenna, S., Heider, L. and Muraya, J. (2022) Evaluation of Antibody and Antigen Cross-Reaction in Kenyan Dairy Cattle Naturally Infected with Two Pestiviruses: Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus and Classical Swine Fever Virus. Veterinary World, 15, 1290-1296. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2022.1290-1296
[120]
Doyle, L.G. and Heuschele, W.P. (1983) Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Infection in Captive Exotic Ruminants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 183, 1257-1259. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.1983.183.11.1257
[121]
Weber, K.H. (1982) Uber das Vorkommen des BVD-MDv. bei zerviden in Rheinland-Pfal. Deutsche tierärztlicheWochenschrift, 89, 1-3.
[122]
Pellerin, C., Van Den Hurk, J., Lecomte, J. and Tijssen, P. (1994) Identification of a New Group of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Strains Associated with Severe Outbreaks and High Mortalities. Virology, 203, 260-268. https://doi.org/10.1006/viro.1994.1483
[123]
Colitti, B., Nogarol, C., Giacobini, M., Capucchio, M.T., Biasato, I., Rosati, S., et al. (2019) Compartmentalized Evolution of Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus Type 2 in an Immunotolerant Persistently Infected Cow. Scientific Reports, 9, Article No. 15460. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52023-w
[124]
Hamers, C., Couvreur, B., Dehan, P., Letellier, C., Lewalle, P., Pastoret, P., et al. (2000) Differences in Experimental Virulence of Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Viral Strains Isolated from Haemorrhagic Syndromes. The Veterinary Journal, 160, 250-258. https://doi.org/10.1053/tvjl.2000.0500
[125]
Wang, F.I., Deng, M.C., Huang, Y.L. and Chang, C.Y. (2015) Structures and Functions of Pestivirus Glycoproteins: Not Simply Surface Matters. Viruses, 7, 3506-3529. https://doi.org/10.3390/v7072783
[126]
Corapi, W.V., Donis, R.O. and Dubovi, E.J. (1988) Monoclonal Antibody Analyses of Cytopathic and Noncytopathic Viruses from Fatal Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Infections. Journal of Virology, 62, 2823-2827. https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.62.8.2823-2827.1988
[127]
Corapi, W.V., Elliott, R.D., French, T.W., Arthur, D.G., Bezek, D.M. and Dubovi, E.J. (1990) Thrombocytopenia and Hemorrhages in Veal Calves Infected with Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 196, 590-596. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.1990.196.04.590
[128]
Chernick, A., Ambagala, A., Orsel, K., Wasmuth, J.D., van Marle, G. and van der Meer, F. (2018) Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Genomic Variation within Persistently Infected Cattle. Infection, Genetics and Evolution, 58, 218-223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2018.01.002
[129]
Donis, R.O. (1995) Molecular Biology of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus and Its Interactions with the Host. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, 11, 393-423. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-0720(15)30459-x
[130]
An, L., Liu, Z., Ren, X., Mo, Y. and Zhou, J. (2025) Evolutionary Paradigm of Distinct Viral Coding Regions of BVDV Associated with Different Nucleotide Usage Patterns. BMC Veterinary Research, 21, Article No. 591. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-025-05035-w
[131]
de Arce, H.D., Pérez, L.J., Frías, M.T., Rosell, R., Tarradas, J., Núñez, J.I. and Ganges, L. (2009) A Multiplex RT-PCR Assay for the Rapid and Differential Diagnosis of Classical Swine Fever and Other Pestivirus Infections. Veterinary Microbiology, 139, 245-252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.06.004
[132]
Podgórska, K., Kamieniecka, K., Stadejek, T. and Pejsak, Z. (2012) Comparison of PCR Methods for Detection of Classical Swine Fever Virus and Other Pestiviruses. Polish Journal of Veterinary Sciences, 15, 615-620. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10181-012-0097-0
[133]
Postel, A., Schmeiser, S., Oguzoglu, T.C., Indenbirken, D., Alawi, M., Fischer, N., etal. (2015) Close Relationship of Ruminant Pestiviruses and Classical Swine Fever Virus. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 21, 668-672. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2104.141441
[134]
Riitho, V., Strong, R., Larska, M., Graham, S.P. and Steinbach, F. (2020) Bovine Pestivirus Heterogeneity and Its Potential Impact on Vaccination and Diagnosis. Viruses, 12, Article 1134. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12101134
[135]
Bauermann, F.V., Ridpath, J.F., Weiblen, R. and Flores, E.F. (2013) HoBi-Like Viruses: An Emerging Group of Pestiviruses. JournalofVeterinaryDiagnosticInvestigation, 25, 6-15.
[136]
Fulton, R.W., Ridpath, J.F., Confer, A.W., Saliki, J.T., Burge, L.J. and Payton, M.E. (2003) Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus Antigenic Diversity: Impact on Disease and Vaccination Programmes. Biologicals, 31, 89-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1045-1056(03)00021-6
[137]
Grooms, D.L., Bolin, S.R., Coe, P.H., Borges, R.J. and Coutu, C.E. (2007) Fetal Protection against Continual Exposure to Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Following Administration of a Vaccine Containing an Inactivated Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Fraction to Cattle. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 68, 1417-1422. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.68.12.1417
[138]
Ridpath, J.F., Fulton, R.W., Kirkland, P.D. and Neill, J.D. (2010) Prevalence and Antigenic Differences Observed Betweenbovine Viral Diarrhea Virus-Subgenotypes Isolated from Cattle in Australia and Feedlots in the Southwestern United States. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 22, 184-191. https://doi.org/10.1177/104063871002200203
[139]
Chi, S., Chen, S., Jia, W., He, Y., Ren, L. and Wang, X. (2022) Non-Structural Proteins of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus. Virus Genes, 58, 491-500. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11262-022-01914-8
[140]
Lanyon, S.R., Hill, F.I., Reichel, M.P. and Brownlie, J. (2014) Bovine Viral Diarrhoea: Pathogenesis and Diagnosis. The Veterinary Journal, 199, 201-209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.07.024
[141]
Lazear, H.M., Lancaster, A., Wilkins, C., Suthar, M.S., Huang, A., Vick, S.C., et al. (2013) IRF-3, IRF-5, and IRF-7 Coordinately Regulate the Type I IFN Response in Myeloid Dendritic Cells Downstream of MAVS Signaling. PLOS Pathogens, 9, e1003118. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003118
[142]
Yitagesu, E., Jackson, W., Kebede, N., Smith, W. and Fentie, T. (2021) Prevalence of Bovine Abortion, Calf Mortality, and Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV) Persistently Infected Calves among Pastoral, Peri-Urban, and Mixed-Crop Livestock Farms in Central and Northwest Ethiopia. BMC Veterinary Research, 17, Article No. 87. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-021-02798-w
[143]
Zheng, F., Yi, W., Liu, W., Zhu, H., Gong, P. and Pan, Z. (2021) A Positively Charged Surface Patch on the Pestivirus NS3 Protease Module Plays an Important Role in Modulating NS3 Helicase Activity and Virus Production. Archives of Virology, 166, 1633-1642. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00705-021-05055-5
[144]
Al-Kubati, A.A.G., Hussen, J., Kandeel, M., Al-Mubarak, A.I.A. and Hemida, M.G. (2021) Recent Advances on the Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Molecular Pathogenesis, Immune Response, and Vaccines Development. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, Article 665128. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.665128
[145]
Mahony, D., Mody, K.T., Cavallaro, A.S., Hu, Q., Mahony, T.J., Qiao, S., et al. (2015) Immunisation of Sheep with Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus, E2 Protein Using a Freeze-Dried Hollow Silica Mesoporous Nanoparticle Formulation. PLOS ONE, 10, e0141870. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141870
[146]
Fletcher, S.P. and Jackson, R.J. (2002) Pestivirus Internal Ribosome Entry Site (IRES) Structure and Function: Elements in the 5’ Untranslated Region Important for IRES Function. Journal of Virology, 76, 5024-5033. https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.76.10.5024-5033.2002
[147]
Panigrahi, R., Hazari, S., Chandra, S., Chandra, P.K., Datta, S., Kurt, R., et al. (2013) Interferon and Ribavirin Combination Treatment Synergistically Inhibit HCV Internal Ribosome Entry Site Mediated Translation at the Level of Polyribosome Formation. PLOS ONE, 8, e72791. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072791
[148]
Xiao, M., Wang, Y., Zhu, Z., Yu, J., Wan, L. and Chen, J. (2009) Influence of NS5A Protein of Classical Swine Fever Virus (CSFV) on CSFV Internal Ribosome Entry Site-Dependent Translation. Journal of General Virology, 90, 2923-2928. https://doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.014472-0
[149]
Moon, S.L., Blackinton, J.G., Anderson, J.R., Dozier, M.K., Dodd, B.J.T., Keene, J.D., et al. (2015) XRN1 Stalling in the 5’ UTR of Hepatitis C Virus and Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Is Associated with Dysregulated Host mRNA Stability. PLOS Pathogens, 11, e1004708. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1004708
[150]
Ghassemi, F., Madadgar, O., Roohvand, F., Rasekhian, M., Etemadzadeh, M.H., Boroujeni, G.R.N., et al. (2017) Translational Efficiency of BVDV IRES and EMCV IRES for T7 RNA Polymerase Driven Cytoplasmic Expression in Mammalian Cell Lines. Molecular Biology, 51, 283-292. https://doi.org/10.1134/s002689331702011x
[151]
Burks, J.M., Zwieb, C., Müller, F., Wower, I.K. and Wower, J. (2011) Comparative Structural Studies of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus IRES RNA. Virus Research, 160, 136-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2011.06.002
[152]
Postel, A., Schmeiser, S., Bernau, J., Meindl-Boehmer, A., Pridotkas, G., Dirbakova, Z., et al. (2012) Improved Strategy for Phylogenetic Analysis of Classical Swine Fever Virus Based on Full-Length E2 Encoding Sequences. Veterinary Research, 43, Article No. 50. https://doi.org/10.1186/1297-9716-43-50
[153]
Khan, S.U., Wuryastuty, H., Wibowo, M.H., Sarmin, S. and Irianingsih, S.H. (2024) Genetic Analyses of the Structural Protein E2 Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Isolated from Dairy Cattle in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Veterinary World, 17, 1562-1574. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2024.1562-1574
[154]
Aitkenhead, H., Riedel, C., Cowieson, N., Rümenapf, H.T., Stuart, D.I. and El Omari, K. (2024) Structural Comparison of Typical and Atypical E2 Pestivirus Glycoproteins. Structure, 32, 273-281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.str.2023.12.003
[155]
Collett, M.S., Larson, R., Gold, C., Strick, D., Anderson, D.K. and Purchio, A.F. (1988) Molecular Cloning and Nucleotide Sequence of the Pestivirus Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus. Virology, 165, 191-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/0042-6822(88)90672-1
[156]
Vilcek, S., Nettleton, P.F., Paton, D.J., et al. (1997) Molecular Characterization of Ovine Pestiviruses. Journal of General Virology, 78, 725-735. https://doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-78-4-725
[157]
De Moerlooze, L., Lecomte, C., Brown-Shimmer, S., Schmetz, D., et al. (1993) Nucleotide Sequence of the Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus Osloss Strain: Comparison with Related Viruses and Identification of Specific DNA Probes in the 5’ Untranslated Region. Journal of General Virology, 74, 1433-1438. https://doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-74-7-1433
[158]
Joo, S.K., Lim, S.I., Jeoung, H.Y., Song, J.Y., Oem, J.K., Mun, S.H. and An, D.J. (2013) Genome Sequence of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Strain 10JJ-SKR, Belonging to Genotype 1d. Genome Announcements, 1, e00565-13. https://doi.org/10.1128/genomea.00565-13
[159]
Nagai, M., Hayashi, M., Itou, M., Fukutomi, T., Akashi, H., Kida, H., et al. (2008) Identification of New Genetic Subtypes of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Genotype 1 Isolated in Japan. Virus Genes, 36, 135-139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11262-007-0190-0
[160]
Sato, A., Tateishi, K., Shinohara, M., Naoi, Y., Shiokawa, M., Aoki, H., et al. (2016) Complete Genome Sequencing of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus 1, Subgenotypes 1n and 1o. Genome Announcements, 4, e01744-15. https://doi.org/10.1128/genomea.01744-15
[161]
Zhu, J., Wang, C., Zhang, L., Zhu, T., Li, H., Wang, Y., et al. (2022) Isolation of Bvdv-1a, 1m, and 1v Strains from Diarrheal Calf in China and Identification of Its Genome Sequence and Cattle Virulence. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, Article 1008107. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.1008107
[162]
Becher, P., Orlich, M., Kosmidou, A., König, M., Baroth, M. and Thiel, H. (1999) Genetic Diversity of Pestiviruses: Identification of Novel Groups and Implications for Classification. Virology, 262, 64-71. https://doi.org/10.1006/viro.1999.9872
[163]
Stalder, H.P., Meier, P., Pfaffen, G., Wageck-Canal, C., Rüfenacht, J., Schaller, P., etal. (2005) Genetic Heterogeneity of Pestiviruses of Ruminants in Switzerland. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 72, 37-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2005.01.020
[164]
Gao, S., Du, J., Shao, J., Lang, Y., Lin, T., Cong, G., et al. (2014) Genome Analysis Reveals a Novel Genetically Divergent Subgenotype of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus in China. Infection, Genetics and Evolution, 21, 489-491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2013.06.010
[165]
Grondahl, C., Uttenthal, A., Houe, H., Rasmussen, T.B., Hoyer, M.J. and Larsen, L.E. (2003) Characterisation of a Pestivirus Isolated from Persistently Infected Mousedeer (Tragulus javanicus). Archives of Virology, 148, 1455-1463. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00705-003-0130-9
[166]
Jones, L.R., Zandomeni, R. and Weber, E.L. (2001) Genetic Typing of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Isolates from Argentina. Veterinary Microbiology, 81, 367-375. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-1135(01)00367-4
[167]
Nagai, M., Ito, T., Sugita, S., Genno, A., Takeuchi, K., Ozawa, T., et al. (2001) Genomic and Serological Diversity of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus in Japan. Archives of Virology, 146, 685-696. https://doi.org/10.1007/s007050170139
[168]
Xu, X., Zhang, Q., Yu, X., Liang, L., Xiao, C., Xiang, H., et al. (2006) Sequencing and Comparative Analysis of a Pig Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Genome. Virus Research, 122, 164-170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2006.05.005
[169]
Kadir, Y., Christine, F., Barbara, B., Zeki, Y., Feray, A., Aykut, O., et al. (2008) Genetic Heterogeneity of Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus (BVDV) Isolates from Turkey: Identification of a New Subgroup in BVDV-1. Veterinary Microbiology, 130, 258-267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.01.016
[170]
Jackova, A., Novackova, M., Pelletier, C., Audeval, C., Gueneau, E., Haffar, A., et al. (2007) The Extended Genetic Diversity of BVDV-1: Typing of BVDV Isolates from France. Veterinary Research Communications, 32, 7-11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11259-007-9012-z
[171]
Schweizer, M. and Peterhans, E. (1999) Oxidative Stress in Cells Infected with Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus: A Crucial Step in the Induction of Apoptosis. Journal of General Virology, 80, 1147-1155. https://doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-80-5-1147
[172]
Marques Antunes de Oliveira, A., Stalder, H., Peterhans, E., Sauter, K. and Schweizer, M. (2013) Complete Genome Sequences of Both Biotypes of a Virus Pair of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Subgenotype 1k. Genome Announcements, 1, e00287-13. https://doi.org/10.1128/genomea.00287-13
