Sociocultural and Structural Barriers to the Integration of Women into Management Positions in Public Enterprises in East Africa: A Comparative Analysis of the DRC, Uganda, Burundi, Tanzania and Kenya
This study examines the sociocultural and structural barriers that hinder women’s access to leadership positions in state-owned enterprises in five East African countries. Based on qualitative interviews with twelve representatives from political parties, humanitarian initiatives, and former professionals, and using text analysis software, the article identifies patriarchal norms, systemic biases, and institutional weaknesses as the main obstacles. The findings highlight gaps in policy implementation and systemic exclusion that impede women’s economic participation. The results indicate that structural barriers such as prejudice and controlled access through male networks are intentionally embedded in the systems. A consensus on patriarchal norms and institutional weaknesses makes change difficult. Women face economic exclusion at a rate of 71%, despite high levels of awareness. While resilience and innovation are present in 54% of women, significant systemic challenges remain, highlighting that empowerment also requires systemic changes.
References
[1]
Adnane, S. (2021). Women’s Economic Participation and the Impact of Regulatory Barriers. World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstreams/57e815c5-e875-5778-9b32-3a64917b37e5/download
[2]
Basu, A. (2018). Women’s Movements in the Global Era: The Power of Local Feminisms (2nd ed). Routledge.
[3]
Bawa, S., & Sanyare, F. (2013). Women’s Participation and Representation in Politics: Perspectives from Ghana. InternationalJournalofPublicAdministration,36, 282-291. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2012.757620
[4]
Belasen, A. T. (2017). Women in Management: A Framework for Sustainable Work-Life Integration. Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315474571/women-management-alan-belasen
[5]
Berg, R. C., & Denison, E. (2012). Does Female Genital Mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) Affect Women’s Sexual Functioning? A Systematic Review of the Sexual Consequences of FGM/C. SexualityResearchandSocialPolicy,9, 41-56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-011-0048-z
[6]
Bodalina, K. N., & Mestry, R. (2022). A Case Study of the Experiences of Women Leaders in Senior Leadership Positions in the Education District Offices. EducationalManagementAdministration&Leadership,50, 452-468. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143220940320
[7]
Bouchmel, I., El Ouakdi, J., Ftiti, Z., Louhichi, W., & Omri, A. (2022). The Mediating Effect of Corporate Innovation on the Relationship between Gender Diversity and Firm Performance. ManagementInternational,26, Article 102. https://doi.org/10.7202/1088439ar
[8]
Brescoll, V. L. (2016). Leading with Their Hearts? How Gender Stereotypes of Emotion Lead to Biased Evaluations of Female Leaders. TheLeadershipQuarterly,27, 415-428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.02.005
[9]
Campbell, D. E., & Wolbrecht, C. (2006). See Jane Run: Women Politicians as Role Models for Adolescents. TheJournalofPolitics,68, 233-247. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2006.00402.x
[10]
Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L.P. (2017). Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research. Wise Publications.
[11]
Cross, M., Lee, S., Bridgman, H., Thapa, D. K., Cleary, M., & Kornhaber, R. (2019). Benefits, Barriers and Enablers of Mentoring Female Health Academics: An Integrative Review. PLOSONE,14, e0215319. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0215319
[12]
Dalkin, S., Forster, N., Hodgson, P., Lhussier, M., & Carr, S. M. (2021). Using Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS; NVivo) to Assist in the Complex Process of Realist Theory Generation, Refinement and Testing. InternationalJournalofSocialResearchMethodology,24, 123-134. https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2020.1803528
[13]
Devlin, C., & Elgie, R. (2008). The Effect of Increased Women’s Representation in Parliament: The Case of Rwanda. ParliamentaryAffairs,61, 237-254. https://doi.org/10.1093/pa/gsn007
[14]
Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice toward Female Leaders. PsychologicalReview,109, 573-598. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.109.3.573
[15]
Eagly, A. H., Karau, S. J., & Makhijani, M. G. (1995). Gender and the Effectiveness of Leaders: A Meta-Analysis. PsychologicalBulletin,117, 125-145. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.125
[16]
Ebert, I. D., Steffens, M. C., & Kroth, A. (2014). Warm, but Maybe Not So Competent?—Contemporary Implicit Stereotypes of Women and Men in Germany. SexRoles,70, 359-375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0369-5
[17]
Evans, A. B., & Pfister, G. U. (2021). Women in Sports Leadership: A Systematic Narrative Review. InternationalReviewfortheSociologyofSport,56, 317-342. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690220911842
[18]
Fedorenko, Z. P., Mikhailovich, Y. I., Goulak, L. O., Ryzhov, A. Y., Gorokh, Y. L., & Soumkina, O. V. (2023). Incidence and Long-Term Effects of Treatment of Malignant Germ Cell Neoplasms in Ukraine. ExperimentalOncology,42, 66-74. https://doi.org/10.32471/exp-oncology.2312-8852.vol-42-no-1.14235
[19]
Flick, U. (2022). An Introduction to Qualitative Research. https://www.torrossa.com/gs/resourceProxy?an=5409482&publisher=FZ7200
[20]
Fraser, N. (1990). Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy. SocialText, 56-80. https://doi.org/10.2307/466240
[21]
George, G., Corbishley, C., Khayesi, J. N. O., Haas, M. R., & Tihanyi, L. (2016). Bringing Africa in: Promising Directions for Management Research. AcademyofManagementJournal,59, 377-393. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2016.4002
[22]
Gingrich, J., & Ansell, B. (2012). Preferences in Context: Micro Preferences, Macro Contexts, and the Demand for Social Policy. ComparativePoliticalStudies,45, 1624-1654. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414012463904
[23]
Goetz, A.M., & Hassim, S. (2003). No Shortcuts to Power: African Women in Politics and Policy Making (Vol. 3). Zed Books. https://books.google.com/books?hl=fr&lr=&id=y1OaRYxe7vgC&oi=fnd&pg=PR6&dq=Goetz,+A.+M.,+%26+Hassim,+S.+(2003).+No+shortcuts+to+power:+African+women+in+politics+and+policy+making.+London:+Zed+Books.&ots=8Y6C6XrSXy&sig=Ji6wth--M_4Uz9EAfy4vkqbw3l4
[24]
Guenaga, M., Eguíluz, A., Garaizar, P., & Mimenza, A. (2022). The Impact of Female Role Models Leading a Group Mentoring Program to Promote STEM Vocations among Young Girls. Sustainability,14, Article 1420. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031420
[25]
Heilman, M. E., & Parks-Stamm, E. J. (2007). Gender Stereotypes in the Workplace: Obstacles to Women’s Career Progress. Advances in Group Processes, 24, 47-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0882-6145(07)24003-2
[26]
Ilesanmi, O. O. (2018). Women’s Visibility in Decision Making Processes in Africa—Progress, Challenges, and Way Forward. FrontiersinSociology,3, Article 38. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2018.00038
[27]
Jose, I., & Sivaraman, S. (2023). Gender Inequality and Gender Gap: An Overview of the Indian Scenario. GenderIssues,40, 232-254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-023-09313-5
[28]
Kabeer, N. (2012). Women’s Economic Empowerment and Inclusive Growth. Labor Markets.
[29]
Kanter, R. M. (1977). Men and Women of the Corporation. Basic Book. https://books.google.com/books?hl=fr&lr=&id=zuZ3HEi4dXIC&oi=fnd&pg=PA381&dq=Kanter,+R.+M.+(1977).+Men+and+women+of+the+corporation.+New+York:+Basic+Books.&ots=vGwlIhXzIS&sig=2h5w8PydOqRvfcCXuhM3VPTVPpA
[30]
Klasen, S., & Lamanna, F. (2009). The Impact of Gender Inequality in Education and Employment on Economic Growth: New Evidence for a Panel of Countries. FeministEconomics,15, 91-132. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700902893106
[31]
Koo, E. (2021). A Pluralistic Insight on Care Value: Exuding from Sharing Gift of Unpaid Work at Home. Gender,Work&Organization,28, 1413-1425. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12652
[32]
Krippendorff, K. (2018). Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071878781
[33]
Krook, M. L., & O’Brien, D. Z. (2010). The Politics of Group Representation: Quotas for Women and Minorities Worldwide. ComparativePolitics,42, 253-272. https://doi.org/10.5129/001041510x12911363509639
[34]
Kunovich, S., & Paxton, P. (2005). Pathways to Power: The Role of Political Parties in Women’s National Political Representation. AmericanJournalofSociology,111, 505-552. https://doi.org/10.1086/444445
[35]
Kyambade, M., Mugambwa, J., Namuddu, R., & Namatovu, A. (2024). Socially Responsible Leadership and Employee’s Work Passion in Public Universities in Uganda: The Mediating Effect of Psychological Safety. InternationalJournalofLeadershipinEducation. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2024.2312976
[36]
Lakhal, F., Hamrouni, A., Jilani, I., Mahjoub, I., & Benkraiem, R. (2024). The Power of Inclusion: Does Leadership Gender Diversity Promote Corporate and Green Innovation? ResearchinInternationalBusinessandFinance,67, Article ID: 102128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ribaf.2023.102128
[37]
Latchanah, C., & Singh, S. (2016). An Investigation of the Challenges Faced by Women When Progressing into Leadership Positions: A Case of the IT Division at Barclays Africa Technology (Trading as ABSA). Journal of Management & Administration, No. 1, 36-71.
[38]
Mainiero, L. A., & Sullivan, S. E. (2005). Kaleidoscope Careers: An Alternate Explanation for the “Opt-Out“ Revolution. AcademyofManagementPerspectives,19, 106-123. https://doi.org/10.5465/ame.2005.15841962
[39]
McClean, E. J., Martin, S. R., Emich, K. J., & Woodruff, C. T. (2018). The Social Consequences of Voice: An Examination of Voice Type and Gender on Status and Subsequent Leader Emergence. AcademyofManagementJournal,61, 1869-1891. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2016.0148
[40]
McEwan, C. (2003). ‘Bringing Government to the People’: Women, Local Governance and Community Participation in South Africa. Geoforum,34, 469-481. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0016-7185(03)00050-2
[41]
McKinsey & Company (2020). Diversity Wins: How Inclusion Matters. McKinsey and Company, US Design Center.
[42]
Norberg, C., & Johansson, M. (2021). “Women and “Ideal” Women”: The Representation of Women in the Construction Industry. GenderIssues,38, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-020-09257-0
[43]
Oliver, P. E., & Marwell, G. (1988). The Paradox of Group Size in Collective Action: A Theory of the Critical Mass. II. AmericanSociologicalReview,53, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095728
[44]
Pateman, C. (2005). Equality, Difference, Subordination: The Politics of Motherhood and Women’s Citizenship. In G. Bock, & S. James (Eds.), Beyond Equality and Difference (pp. 22-35). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203982266-9/equality-difference-subordination-politics-motherhood-women-citizenship-carole-pateman
[45]
Petrongolo, B., & Ronchi, M. (2020). Gender Gaps and the Structure of Local Labor Markets. LabourEconomics,64, Article ID: 101819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2020.101819
[46]
Player, A., Randsley de Moura, G., Leite, A. C., Abrams, D., & Tresh, F. (2019). Overlooked Leadership Potential: The Preference for Leadership Potential in Job Candidates Who Are Men vs. Women. FrontiersinPsychology,10, Article 755. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00755
[47]
Ryzhov, A., Bray, F., Ferlay, J., Fedorenko, Z., Goulak, L., Gorokh, Y. et al. (2020). Recent Cancer Incidence Trends in Ukraine and Short-Term Predictions to 2022. CancerEpidemiology,65, Article ID: 101663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.canep.2019.101663
[48]
Schwanke, D. (2013). Barriers for Women to Positions of Power: How Societal and Corporate Structures, Perceptions of Leadership and Discrimination Restrict Women’s Advancement to Authority. EarthCommonJournal,3, 15-28. https://doi.org/10.31542/j.ecj.125
[49]
Sims, R. L., & Chinta, R. (2019). The Mediating Role of Entrepreneurial Ambition in the Relationship between Entrepreneurial Efficacy and Entrepreneurial Drive for Female Nascent Entrepreneurs. GenderinManagement:AnInternationalJournal,35, 76-91. https://doi.org/10.1108/gm-09-2019-0158
[50]
Singh, V., Terjesen, S., & Vinnicombe, S. (2008). Newly Appointed Directors in the Boardroom. EuropeanManagementJournal,26, 48-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2007.10.002
[51]
Sowjanya, K., Krishna, S., & Rao, IN (2017). Impact of Gender Discrimination on Talent Management. InternationalJournalofEngineeringTechnologyScienceandResearch,4, 1172-1178.
[52]
Storberg-Walker, J., & Natt Och Dag, K. (2017). Creativity in Theorizing for Women and Leadership: A Multi-Paradigm Perspective. In S. R. Madsen (Ed.), HandbookofResearchonGenderandLeadership (pp. 65-84). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781785363863.00012
[53]
Streitfeld, D. (2015). Ellen Pao loses Silicon Valley bias case against Kleiner Perkins (p. 27). NewYorkTimes.
[54]
Swers, M. L. (2020). The Difference Women Make:The Policy Impactof Women inCongress. University of Chicago Press.
[55]
Tushabe, M., Kyambade, M., Namatovu, A., & Oyella, S. (2025). Advancing Gender Diversity in Leadership: The Role of Work-Life Balance and Gender Participation in Ugandan Public Universities. CogentSocialSciences,11, Article ID: 2486553. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2025.2486553
[56]
Wacheux, F. (1996). Qualitative Research Methods in Management. https://ideas.repec.org/p/hal/journl/hal-00157140.html
[57]
Walby, S. (1998). TheorizingPatriarchy. Wiley-Blackwell.
[58]
Wanyeki, L. M. (2005). TheAfricanWomen’sDevelopmentandCommunicationNetwork(FEMNET): Experiences of Feminist Continental Organising. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48726046
[59]
Wollstonecraft, M. (2024). A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In T. Ball, R. Dagger, D. I. O’Neill, & J. Kirkpatrick (Eds.), IdealsandIdeologies (pp. 411-416). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003263562-64
[60]
Yoon, M. Y. (2001). Democratization and Women’s Legislative Representation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Democratization,8, 169-190. https://doi.org/10.1080/714000199
[61]
Young, I. M. (1989). Polity and Group Difference: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Citizenship. Ethics,99, 250-274. https://doi.org/10.1086/293065
