Aim: This study examined the association among individual traits, socio-demographic factors, and health and lifestyle factors related to social isolation and loneliness among community-dwelling older adults in Chile, with emphasis on gender differences. Methods: Using a cross-sectional design, 6755 participants aged 60 and older from the National Quality of Life and Health Survey were analysed. Social isolation was assessed using both external and internal domains as defined by Zavaleta et al., while loneliness was measured using the Three-Item Loneliness Scale from Hughes et al. Gender-specific multivariable logistic regression models with average marginal effects were used to analyse the relationships among social isolation, loneliness, and the previously mentioned factors. Results: Findings indicate that rates of social isolation and loneliness increase with age, and women are more affected, mainly by loneliness. Key factors contributing to social isolation for both genders include lower educational attainment, living alone, loneliness, and work status. Sharing caregiving activities and moderate smartphone use both reduce the risk of social isolation among women. Common predictors of loneliness for both genders include educational attainment, living alone, depression, social isolation, experiences of discrimination, caregiving activities, dissatisfaction with oneself or family life, and a sense of not belonging in the neighbourhood. Retirement serves as a protective factor against loneliness for older women, while being overweight or underweight may protect older men. Conclusions: The study highlights important gender differences in social isolation and loneliness among older adults, demonstrating that psychosocial factors strongly influence these outcomes. These insights can inform the development of public policies and interventions to improve the mental health and well-being of this population.
References
[1]
Ahola, A. J., Suojanen, L., Joki, A., & Pietiläinen, K. H. (2024). Loneliness and Its Cross-Sectional Associations with Health, Health Behaviours, and Perceptions in Finnish Patients with Overweight or Obesity Taking Part in the Healthy Weight Coaching. Preventive Medicine, 185, Article ID: 108032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2024.108032
[2]
Akhter-Khan, S. C., Hofmann, V., Warncke, M., Tamimi, N., Mayston, R., & Prina, M. A. (2022). Caregiving, Volunteering, and Loneliness in Middle-Aged and Older Adults: A Systematic Review. Aging&MentalHealth,27, 1233-1245. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2022.2144130
[3]
Akhter-Khan, S. C., van Es, W., Prina, M., Lawrence, V., Piri, I., Rokach, A. et al. (2024). Experiences of Loneliness in Lower-and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies. SocialScience&Medicine,340, Article ID: 116438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116438
[4]
Asante, S., & Tuffour, G. (2022). Social Isolation and Loneliness in Older Adults: Why Proper Conceptualization Matters. JournalofAgeingandLongevity,2, 206-213. https://doi.org/10.3390/jal2030017
[5]
Bae, Y., & Pachucki, M. C. (2024). Social Isolation and Depression as Risk Factors for Weight Loss of 5kg or More among Older Korean Adults. PLOSONE,19, e0299096. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299096
[6]
Berkman, L. F., & Syme, S. L. (1979). Social Networks, Host Resistance, and Mortality: A Nine-Year Follow-Up Study of Alameda County Residents. AmericanJournalofEpidemiology,109, 186-204. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112674
[7]
Berkman, L. F., Glass, T., Brissette, I., & Seeman, T. E. (2000). From Social Integration to Health: Durkheim in the New Millennium. SocialScience&Medicine,51, 843-857. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00065-4
[8]
Bharamagoudar, R., & Komala, M. (2025). Relationship of Smartphone Addiction with Lifestyle among Elderly. International Journal of Indian Psychology, 13, 171-180.
[9]
Bongelli, R., Busilacchi, G., Pacifico, A., Fabiani, M., Guarascio, C., Sofritti, F. et al. (2024). Caregiving Burden, Social Support, and Psychological Well-Being among Family Caregivers of Older Italians: A Cross-Sectional Study. FrontiersinPublicHealth,12, Article 1474967. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1474967
[10]
Cacioppo, J. T., Cacioppo, S., Capitanio, J. P., & Cole, S. W. (2015). The Neuroendocrinology of Social Isolation. AnnualReviewofPsychology,66, 733-767. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015240
[11]
Carrasco, M., Fernández, M., Alexander, E., & Herrera, M. (2021). Loneliness in Older Chilean People: Importance of Family Dysfunction and Depression. InternationalJournalofMentalHealthPromotion,23, 99-109. https://doi.org/10.32604/ijmhp.2021.011568
[12]
Chiao, C., Kuo, P., Li, D., & Hu, S. C. (2022). The Changes in Feeling of Loneliness after Retirement among Baby Boomers and Pre-Boomers in Taiwan Region: Do Work-Family Conflict before Retirement and Social Engagement after Retirement Matter? SSM—PopulationHealth,20, Article ID: 101264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2022.101264
[13]
Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL) (2022). Panorama Social de América Latina y el Caribe 2022. CEPAL. https://www.cepal.org/es/publicaciones
[14]
Compernolle, E. L., Finch, L. E., Hawkley, L. C., & Cagney, K. A. (2021). Momentary Loneliness among Older Adults: Contextual Differences and Their Moderation by Gender and Race/Ethnicity. SocialScience&Medicine,285, Article ID: 114307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114307
[15]
Cudjoe, T. K. M., Selvakumar, S., Chung, S., Latkin, C. A., Roth, D. L., Thorpe, R. J. et al. (2022). Getting under the Skin: Social Isolation and Biological Markers in the National Health and Aging Trends Study. JournaloftheAmericanGeriatricsSociety,70, 408-414. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.17518
[16]
Fee, A., McIlfatrick, S., & Ryan, A. (2021). ‘The Care Circle Consists of Me.’ Loneliness and Social Isolation for Older Male Spousal Care-Givers. A Qualitative Study. AgeingandSociety,43, 706-723. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0144686x21000854
[17]
Fu, S., & Zhang, G. (2025). The Impact of Post-Retirement Social Relationship Changes on Depressive Symptoms in Chinese Older Adults: The Mediating Role of Loneliness and Moderating Role of Social Networks. PsychologyResearchandBehaviorManagement,18, 1241-1252. https://doi.org/10.2147/prbm.s518452
[18]
Ghosh, G., Khan, H. T. A., & Vohra, S. (2025). A Qualitative Study to Examine Hidden Care Burden for Older Adults with Overweight and Obesity in England. PLOS ONE, 20, e0320253. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320253
[19]
Gierke, C., Navarro, C. F., Martinez, M., Delgado, C., Delano, P. H., Medel, V. et al. (2024). Characterization of Social Isolation and Perception of Loneliness in a Group of Chilean Older People Post-Pandemic. Alzheimer’s&Dementia,20, e089300. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.089300
[20]
Guan, Z., Poon, A. W. C., & Zwi, A. (2023). Social Isolation and Loneliness in Family Caregivers of People with Severe Mental Illness: A Scoping Review. AmericanJournalofCommunityPsychology,72, 443-463. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12698
[21]
Guthmuller, S., Heger, D., Hollenbach, J., & Werbeck, A. (2024). The Impact of Retirement on Loneliness in Europe. ScientificReports,14, Article No. 26971. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-74692-y
[22]
Hajek, A., Kretzler, B., & König, H. (2021). The Association between Obesity and Social Isolation as Well as Loneliness in the Adult Population: A Systematic Review. Diabetes,MetabolicSyndromeandObesity:TargetsandTherapy,14, 2765-2773. https://doi.org/10.2147/dmso.s313873
[23]
Hajek, A., Volkmar, A., & König, H. H. (2023). Prevalence and Correlates of Loneliness and Social Isolation in the Oldest Old: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis and Meta-Regression. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 60, 993-1015 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-023-02602-0
[24]
Herrera, M. S., Elgueta, R., Fernández, M. B., Giacoman, C., Leal, D., Rubio, M., Marshall, P., & Bustamante, F. (2021). Calidad de vida de las personas mayores chilenas durante la pandem-ia COVID-19.
[25]
Holt-Lunstad, J., Robles, T. F., & Sbarra, D. A. (2017). Advancing Social Connection as a Public Health Priority in the United States. AmericanPsychologist,72, 517-530. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000103
[26]
Hosmer, D. W., & Lemeshow, S. (2000). AppliedLogisticRegression. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471722146
[27]
Hughes, M. E., Waite, L. J., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2004). A Short Scale for Measuring Loneliness in Large Surveys: Results from Two Population-Based Studies. ResearchonAging,26, 655-672. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027504268574
[28]
Ikeuchi, T., Taniguchi, Y., Abe, T., Seino, S., Shimada, C., Kitamura, A. et al. (2021). Association between Experience of Pet Ownership and Psychological Health among Socially Isolated and Non-Isolated Older Adults. Animals,11, Article 595. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11030595
[29]
Institute of Medicine (US) Division of Health Promotion and Disease Prevention (1992). The Second Fifty Years: Promoting Health and Preventing Disability. In R. L. Berg, & J. S. Cassells (Eds.), SocialIsolationamongOlderIndividuals:TheRelationshiptoMortalityandMorbidity (p. 14). National Academies Press. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK235604/
[30]
Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas (INE) (2023). Proyeccionesdepoblaciónporsexoyedad:Chile2023-2050. Gobierno de Chile.
[31]
Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas (INE) (2024). CensodePoblaciónyViviendadeChile,2024. Estadísticas.
[32]
Kim, A., & Park, K. (2025). Development of Social Isolation and Social Network Assessment Tool for Older Adults: A Delphi Survey. PLOSOne,20, e0323198. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323198
[33]
Kim, J., & Park, G. (2024). Cumulative Exposure to Social Isolation and Longitudinal Changes in Life Satisfaction among Older Adults. SocietyandMentalHealth,14, 113-128. https://doi.org/10.1177/21568693241232410
[34]
Kim, Y. B., & Lee, S. H. (2022). Gender Differences in Correlates of Loneliness among Community-Dwelling Older Koreans. InternationalJournalofEnvironmentalResearchandPublicHealth,19, Article 7334. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127334
[35]
Leach, R., Phillipson, C., Biggs, S., & Money, A. (2008). Sociological Perspectives on the Baby Boomers: An Exploration of Social Change. QualityofAgeing,9, 19-26. https://doi.org/10.1108/14717794200800024
[36]
Lennartsson, C., Rehnberg, J., & Dahlberg, L. (2022). The Association between Loneliness, Social Isolation and All-Cause Mortality in a Nationally Representative Sample of Older Women and Men. Aging&MentalHealth,26, 1821-1828. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2021.1976723
[37]
Lin, I., & Brown, S. L. (2012). Unmarried Boomers Confront Old Age: A National Portrait. TheGerontologist,52, 153-165. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnr141
[38]
Lissitsa, S., Zychlinski, E., & Kagan, M. (2021). The Silent Generation vs Baby Boomers: Socio-Demographic and Psychological Predictors of the “Gray” Digital Inequalities. ComputersinHumanBehavior,128, Article ID: 107098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.107098
[39]
Loos, E., Fernández-Ardèvol, M., Peine, A., Rosales, A., Beneito-Montagut, R., & Blanche-Tarragó, D. (2025). Making Sense of Older Adults’ Everyday Smartphone Use for Social Connectedness. JournalofGlobalAgeing,2, 138-158. https://doi.org/10.1332/29767202y2025d000000021
[40]
Marí-Klose, M., Marí-Klose, P., Gallo, P., Escapa, S., & Julià, A. (2024). Loneliness and Pet Ownership among Dependent Older Adults in a Southern European Urban Context. Aging&MentalHealth,29, 779-787. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2024.2417196
[41]
Miao, M., Fang, F., Lyu, J., Liu, Z., Wan, Z., Qin, L. et al. (2025). Relationships of Social Isolation and Loneliness with Healthy Aging among Older Adults. BMC Geriatrics, 25, Article No. 267. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-025-05941-6
[42]
Ministerio de Salud (2008). Manual de Aplicación del Examen de Medicina Preventiva del Adulto Mayor. Santiago. https://www.minsal.cl/portal/url/item/ab1f81f43ef0c2a6e04001011e011907.pdf
[43]
Ministry of Health (2025). Database User Manual and Code Book.NationalQualitySurveyLifeandHealth2023-2024. Santiago de Chile. https://epi.minsal.cl/bases-de-datos
[44]
Naito, R., Leong, D. P., Bangdiwala, S. I., McKee, M., Subramanian, S. V., Rangarajan, S. et al. (2021). Impact of Social Isolation on Mortality and Morbidity in 20 High-Income, Middle-Income and Low-Income Countries in Five Continents. BMJGlobalHealth,6, e004124. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004124
[45]
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2020). Social Isolation and Loneliness in Older Adults:Opportunitiesforthe Health Care System. The National Academies Press.
[46]
Nicholson, N. R. (2012). A Review of Social Isolation: An Important but Underassessed Condition in Older Adults. TheJournalofPrimaryPrevention,33, 137-152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-012-0271-2
[47]
Observatorio del Envejecimiento (2025). SoledadnoDeseadayAislamientoSocialenlaVejez:Prevalencia,FactoresdeRiesgoyEstrategiasdeAcción.Año6,v37. Centro de Estudios de Vejez y Envejecimiento de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile y Compañía de Seguros Confuturo.
[48]
Pan, C. (2024). Bidirectional and Dynamic Relationships between Social Isolation and Loneliness among Older Adults in China. JournaloftheAmericanMedicalDirectorsAssociation,25, Article ID: 105003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2024.03.114
[49]
Pan, C., Yu, L., & Cao, N. (2024). Reciprocal and Dynamic Associations between Social Isolation, Loneliness, and Disability among Chinese Older Adults. JournaloftheAmericanMedicalDirectorsAssociation,25, Article ID: 104975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2024.02.013
[50]
Pavlidis, G. (2025). Gendered Associations of Situational and Dispositional Factors with Exclusion from Social Relations and Loneliness in Older Age. FrontiersinPublicHealth,13, Article 1445662. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2025.1445662
[51]
Pomeroy, M. L., Umoh, M., Qian, Y., Gimm, G., Ornstein, K. A., & Cudjoe, T. K. M. (2024). Social Isolation and Hospitalization in Community-Dwelling Older Adults by Dementia Status. TheJournalsofGerontology,SeriesA:BiologicalSciencesandMedicalSciences,79, glae224. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glae224
[52]
Puyané, M., Chabrera, C., Camón, E., & Cabrera, E. (2025). Uncovering the Impact of Loneliness in Ageing Populations: A Comprehensive Scoping Review. BMCGeriatrics,25, Article No. 244. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-025-05846-4
[53]
Russell, D. W. (1996). UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, Validity, and Factor Structure. JournalofPersonalityAssessment,66, 20-40. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6601_2
[54]
Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Cutrona, C. E. (1980). The Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: Concurrent and Discriminant Validity Evidence. JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,39, 472-480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.39.3.472
[55]
Sandy, P. A., Borim, F. S. A., Assumpção, D. D., & Neri, A. L. (2025). Combined Experiences of Loneliness and Social Isolation and Their Associations with Sociodemographic, Health, and Psychosocial Variables: Elsi-Brazil. Aging&MentalHealth,29, 1179-1188. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2025.2452940
[56]
Savage, R. D., Wu, W., Li, J., Lawson, A., Bronskill, S. E., Chamberlain, S. A. et al. (2020). Loneliness among Older Adults in the Community during COVID-19: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Canada. BMJOpen,11, e044517. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-044517
[57]
Shimada, H., Doi, T., Tsutsumimoto, K., Makino, K., Harada, K., Tomida, K. et al. (2025). Combined Effects of Social Isolation and Loneliness on Disability Incidence in Older Adults. ArchivesofGerontologyandGeriatrics,131, Article ID: 105749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2025.105749
[58]
Soundararajan, A., Lim, J. X., Ngiam, N. H. W., Tey, A. J., Tang, A. K. W., Lim, H. A. et al. (2023). Smartphone Ownership, Digital Literacy, and the Mediating Role of Social Connectedness and Loneliness in Improving the Wellbeing of Community-Dwelling Older Adults of Low Socio-Economic Status in Singapore. PLOSONE,18, e0290557. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290557
[59]
Srivastava, S., Ramanathan, M., Dhillon, P., Maurya, C., & Singh, S. K. (2020). Gender Differentials in Prevalence of Loneliness among Older Adults in India: An Analysis from WHO Study on Global Ageing and Adult Health. AgeingInternational,46, 395-421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12126-020-09394-7
[60]
Takagi, E., Saito, Y., & Chan, A. (2020). Gender Differences in the Association between Social Relationships and Loneliness among Older Adults in Singapore. JournalofPopulationResearch,37, 243-263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12546-020-09242-0
[61]
Taylor, H. O. (2019). Social Isolation’s Influence on Loneliness among Older Adults. ClinicalSocialWorkJournal,48, 140-151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-019-00737-9
[62]
Teo, R. H., Cheng, W. H., Cheng, L. J., Lau, Y., & Lau, S. T. (2023). Global Prevalence of Social Isolation among Community-Dwelling Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. ArchivesofGerontologyandGeriatrics,107, Article ID: 104904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2022.104904
[63]
Uchino, B. N. (2006). Social Support and Health: A Review of Physiological Processes Potentially Underlying Links to Disease Outcomes. JournalofBehavioralMedicine,29, 377-387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-006-9056-5
[64]
Umberson, D., & Montez, J. K. (2010). Social Relationships and Health: A Flashpoint for Health Policy. JournalofHealthandSocialBehavior,51, S54-S66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510383501
[65]
Umoh, M. E., Prichett, L., Boyd, C. M., & Cudjoe, T. K. M. (2023). Impact of Technology on Social Isolation: Longitudinal Analysis from the National Health Aging Trends Study. JournaloftheAmericanGeriatricsSociety,71, 1117-1123. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.18179
[66]
UN (2020). UNResolution75/131:UnitedNationsDecadeforHealthyAgeing. https://docs.un.org/en/A/RES/75/131
[67]
von Humboldt, S., Ilyas, N., & Leal, I. (2024). Perceptions of Obesity in Old Age: A Qualitative Study. EuropeanPsychiatry,67, S562-S562. https://doi.org/10.1192/j.eurpsy.2024.1169
[68]
Wang, F., Gao, Y., Han, Z., Yu, Y., Long, Z., Jiang, X. et al. (2023a). A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 90 Cohort Studies of Social Isolation, Loneliness and Mortality. NatureHumanBehaviour,7, 1307-1319. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01617-6
[69]
Wang, S., Lin, J., Kuang, L., Yang, X., Yu, B., & Cui, Y. (2023b). Risk Factors for Social Isolation in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PublicHealthNursing,41, 200-208. https://doi.org/10.1111/phn.13266
[70]
Wen, Z., Peng, S., Yang, L., Wang, H., Liao, X., Liang, Q. et al. (2022). Factors Associated with Social Isolation in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JournaloftheAmericanMedicalDirectorsAssociation,24, 322-330.e6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2022.11.008
[71]
Wen, Z., Wang, H., Liang, Q., Liu, L., Zhang, W., & Zhang, X. (2024). Mediating Effect of Social Support and Resilience between Loneliness and Depression in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analytic Structural Equation Modeling. Journal of Affective Disorders, 365, 246-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.08.062
[72]
Williams, R. (2012). Using the Margins Command to Estimate and Interpret Adjusted Predictions and Marginal Effects. TheStataJournal:PromotingcommunicationsonstatisticsandStata,12, 308-331. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867x1201200209
[73]
World Health Organization (WHO) (2020). Guidelineson Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240015128
[74]
World Health Organization (WHO) (2021). SocialIsolationandLonelinessamongOlderAdults. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240030749
[75]
World Health Organization (WHO) (2024). Ageingand Health. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health
[76]
World Health Organization (WHO) (2025). From Loneliness to Social Connection—Chartinga Path to Healthier Societies: Report oftheWHOCommissiononSocialConnection. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/978240112360
[77]
Yildirimer, K. S. (2025). On the Threshold of Social Erosion: The Dynamic of Sociological and Psychological Collapse. IRASSJournalofArts,HumanitiesandSocialSciences,2, 155-160. https://irasspublisher.com/assets/articles/1753113061.pdf
[78]
Yu, Q., Xu, L., Zhou, L., Jiang, X., Xu, N., Lang, Z. et al. (2025). A Study of the Relationship between Social Support, Caregiving Experience and Depressed Mood of Family Caregivers of Home-Dwelling Older Adults with Disability—A Cross-Sectional Study. BMCPublicHealth,25, Article No. 1021. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-22276-4
[79]
Zavaleta, D., Samuel, K., & Mills, C. T. (2017). Measures of Social Isolation. SocialIndicatorsResearch,131, 367-391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1252-2
[80]
Zhao, M., Huo, X., Zhang, H., Wu, C., Peng, S., Liu, Z. et al. (2025). Sex-Specific Associations of Social Isolation and Loneliness with Residual Life Expectancy at Age 45 Years among Middle-Aged and Older Adults in China. BMCPublicHealth,25, Article No. 2499. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-23708-x
