DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, carrying encoded genetic information at molecular level, is the most significant discovery in the history of genetics. Previous researches on DNA included topics of bases, base-pairing, hydrogen bonds, structure, base sequence, dynamics, replication and mutation. DNA must duplicate itself, and so DNA structure and DNA replication are the fundamental problems. Watson and Crick described the structure and the mechanism for replication of DNA. Other authors focused their studies on DNA replication. DNA molecules are micro-entities ruled by laws of quantum mechanics, but the mechanisms, found previously of DNA forming and replicating, were not explored by applying quantum mechanics. Here we show that controlled by quantum mechanics, the quantum state of DNA is a bio-quantum-entangled state, the mechanism of DNA forming and replicating is a process of bio-quantum entangling, de-entangling and re-entangling. This bio-quantum mechanical result is different from the conventional biochemical descriptions of DNA structure and replication. DNA genetics is bio-quantum genetics in nature. With this deep understanding, reform and progress should be expected for further development of genetics.
References
[1]
Sturtevant, A.H. (2001) A History of Genetics. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press and Electronic Scholarly Publishing Project.
[2]
Mukherjee, S. (2016) The Gene. Simon & Schuster Inc.
[3]
Watson, J.D. and Crick, F.H.C. (1953) The Structure of DNA. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, 18, 123-131. https://doi.org/10.1101/sqb.1953.018.01.020
[4]
Watson, J.D. and Crick, F.H.C. (1953) Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid. Nature, 171, 737-738. https://doi.org/10.1038/171737a0
[5]
Watson, J.D. and Crick, F.H.C. (1953) Genetical Implications of the Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid. Nature, 171, 964-967. https://doi.org/10.1038/171964b0
[6]
Watson, J.D. (1981) The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA. Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
[7]
Wilkins, M. (2003) Maurice Wilkins: The Third Man of the Double Helix: An Autobiography. Oxford University Press.
[8]
Schweitzer, B.A. and Kool, E.T. (1995) Hydrophobic, Non-Hydrogen-Bonding Bases and Base Pairs in DNA. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 117, 1863-1872. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja00112a001
[9]
Fonseca Guerra, C., Bickelhaupt, F.M., Snijders, J.G. and Baerends, E.J. (2000) Hydrogen Bonding in DNA Base Pairs: Reconciliation of Theory and Experiment. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 122, 4117-4128. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja993262d
[10]
Mo, Y. (2006) Probing the Nature of Hydrogen Bonds in DNA Base Pairs. Journal of Molecular Modeling, 12, 665-672. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00894-005-0021-y
[11]
Every, A.E. and Russu, I.M. (2007) Probing the Role of Hydrogen Bonds in the Stability of Base Pairs in Double‐Helical DNA. Biopolymers, 87, 165-173. https://doi.org/10.1002/bip.20811
[12]
Szatyłowicz, H. and Sadlej-Sosnowska, N. (2010) Characterizing the Strength of Individual Hydrogen Bonds in DNA Base Pairs. Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling, 50, 2151-2161. https://doi.org/10.1021/ci100288h
[13]
Poudel, L., Rulis, P., Liang, L. and Ching, W.Y. (2014) Electronic Structure, Stacking Energy, Partial Charge, and Hydrogen Bonding in Four Periodic B-DNA Models. Physical Review E, 90, Article 022705. https://doi.org/10.1103/physreve.90.022705
[14]
Berezin, K.V., Nechaev, V.V., Likhter, A.M., Kochergina, D.D., Chernavina, M.L. and Bondyakova, A.A. (2016) Analysis of the Structural and Thermodynamic Parameters of the Hydrogen Bond in Complementary Pairs of DNA and RNA Bases. Journal of Surface Investigation. X-Ray, Synchrotron and Neutron Techniques, 10, 809-815. https://doi.org/10.1134/s1027451016040248
[15]
Peyrard, M. and Bishop, A.R. (1989) Statistical Mechanics of a Nonlinear Model for DNA Denaturation. Physical Review Letters, 62, 2755-2758. https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.62.2755
[16]
Dauxois, T. (1991) Dynamics of Breather Modes in a Nonlinear “Helicoidal” Model of DNA. Physics Letters A, 159, 390-395. https://doi.org/10.1016/0375-9601(91)90367-h
[17]
Dauxois, T., Peyrard, M. and Bishop, A.R. (1993) Dynamics and Thermodynamics of a Nonlinear Model for DNA Denaturation. Physical Review E, 47, 684-695. https://doi.org/10.1103/physreve.47.684
[18]
Hisakado, M. and Wadati, M. (1995) Inhomogenious Model for DNA Dynamics. Journal of the Physical Society of Japan, 64, 1098-1103. https://doi.org/10.1143/jpsj.64.1098
[19]
Hisakado, M. (1997) Breather Trapping Mechanism in Piecewise Homogeneous DNA. Physics Letters A, 227, 87-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0375-9601(97)00023-6
[20]
Mingaleev, S.F., Christiansen, P.L., Gaididei, Y.B., Johansson, M. and Rasmussen, K.Ø. (1999) Models for Energy and Charge Transport and Storage in Biomolecules. Journal of Biological Physics, 25, 41-63. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1005152704984
[21]
Trifonov, A., Raytchev, M., Buchvarov, I., Rist, M., Barbaric, J., Wagenknecht, H.-A., et al. (2005) Ultrafast Energy Transfer and Structural Dynamics in DNA. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 109, 19490-19495. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp052108c
[22]
Nordlund, T.M. (2007) Sequence, Structure and Energy Transfer in DNA. Photochemistry and Photobiology, 83, 625-636. https://doi.org/10.1562/2006-04-05-ir-877
[23]
Zdravković, S. and Satarić, M.V. (2008) Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation and DNA Dynamics. Physics Letters A, 373, 126-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physleta.2008.10.068
[24]
Zhang, L. and Tan, Z. (2009) A New Calculation on Spectrum of Direct DNA Damage Induced by Low-Energy Electrons. Radiation and Environmental Biophysics, 49, 15-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00411-009-0262-8
[25]
Agüero, M.A., Belyaeva, T.L. and Serkin, V.N. (2011) Compacton Anti-Compacton Pair for Hydrogen Bonds and Rotational Waves in DNA Dynamics. Communications in Nonlinear Science and Numerical Simulation, 16, 3071-3080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cnsns.2010.10.025
[26]
Ezzati, A.O., Xiao, Y., Sohrabpour, M. and Studenski, M.T. (2015) The Effect of Energy Spectrum Change on DNA Damage in and Out of Field in 10-MV Clinical Photon Beams. Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing, 53, 67-75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11517-014-1213-3
[27]
Liu, W., Tan, Z., Zhang, L. and Champion, C. (2017) Calculation on Spectrum of Direct DNA Damage Induced by Low-Energy Electrons Including Dissociative Electron Attachment. Radiation and Environmental Biophysics, 56, 99-110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00411-016-0681-2
[28]
Chatzipapas, K.P., Papadimitroulas, P., Obeidat, M., McConnell, K.A., Kirby, N., Loudos, G., et al. (2018) Quantification of DNA Double‐Strand Breaks Using Geant4‐DNA. Medical Physics, 46, 405-413. https://doi.org/10.1002/mp.13290
[29]
Bilal, M., Younas, U. and Ren, J. (2021) Dynamics of Exact Soliton Solutions in the Double‐chain Model of Deoxyribonucleic Acid. Mathematical Methods in the Applied Sciences, 44, 13357-13375. https://doi.org/10.1002/mma.7631
[30]
Joy, C.M., Ayyappam, N. and Kavitha, L. (2022) Dynamics of Peyrard Bishop Model of DNA under the Influence of Solvent Interaction. Materials Today: Proceedings, 51, 1777-1781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.03.601
[31]
Lima, A.I.A., Vasconcelos, M.S. and Anselmo, D.H.A.L. (2022) Double Power-Law and Random Fractality in the Energy Spectra of Poly(GA) Sequences in Human DNA. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications, 596, Article 127094. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physa.2022.127094
[32]
Shi, X. (2023) Energy Spectrum of the Ideal DNA Knot on a Torus. European Biophysics Journal, 52, 651-660. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00249-023-01670-z
[33]
Ibrahim, B. (2018) Mathematical Analysis and Modeling of DNA Segregation Mechanisms. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 15, 429-440. https://doi.org/10.3934/mbe.2018019
[34]
Cheng, K. and Zou, C. (2003) A Three Dimensional (3-D) Physical Model of DNA Polymerase Movement in DNA Replication. Biomedical Sciences and Instrumentation, 39, 83-88.
[35]
Cheng, K. and Zou, C. (2006) Electromagnetic Field Effect on Separation of Nucleotide Sequences and Unwinding of a Double Helix during DNA Replication. Medical Hypotheses, 66, 148-153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2005.07.007
[36]
Cheng, K. and Zou, C. (2006) Informatics and Physics Models of Recognitions of DNA Replication and Their Biological Applications. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 3, 2059-2062. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajassp.2006.2059.2062
[37]
Bruemmer, A., Salazar, C., Zinzalla, V., Alberghina, L. and Hoefer, T. (2010) Mathematical Modeling of DNA Replication. Journal of Biotechnology, 150, 544-544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2010.09.899
[38]
Rushdi, A. (2010) A Mathematical Model of DNA Replication. International Magazine on Advances in Computer Science and Telecommunications, 1, 23-30.
[39]
Hyrien, O. and Goldar, A. (2009) Mathematical Modelling of Eukaryotic DNA Replication. Chromosome Research, 18, 147-161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10577-009-9092-4
[40]
Schrodinger, E. (1944) What Is Life? Cambridge University Press.
[41]
Pullman, B. (1965) Some Recent Developments in the Quantum-Mechanical Studies on the Electronic Structure of the Nucleic Acids. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 43, S233-S243. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1701497
[42]
Steele, R.H. (2008) Harmonic Oscillators: The Quantization of Simple Systems in the Old Quantum Theory and Their Functional Roles in Biology. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, 310, 19-42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11010-007-9662-8
[43]
Wu, L., Wu, S.S. and Segal, D. (2009) Looking into DNA Breathing Dynamics via Quantum Physics. Physical Review E, 79, Article 061901. https://doi.org/10.1103/physreve.79.061901
[44]
Chang, Y. (2014) Extensive Quantum Theory of DNA and Biological String. NeuroQuantology, 12, 356-363. https://doi.org/10.14704/nq.2014.12.3.738
[45]
Zhao, J. (2024) A Theory of Bio-Quantum Genetics. Journal of Quantum Information Science, 14, 15-27. https://doi.org/10.4236/jqis.2024.141002
[46]
Dirac, P.A.M. (1958) The Principles of Quantum Mechanics, 4th Edition, Oxford University Press.
[47]
Shankar, R. (1994) Principles of Quantum Mechanics. 2nd Edition, Plenum Press.
[48]
Grover, L.K. (1996) A Fast Quantum Mechanical Algorithm for Database Search. Proceedings 28 ACM Symposium on the Theory of Computation, Philadelphia, 22-24 May 1996, 212-219. https://doi.org/10.1145/237814.237866
[49]
Grover, L.K. (1997) Quantum Mechanics Helps in Searching for a Needle in a Haystack. Physical Review Letters, 79, 325-328. https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.79.325
[50]
Nielsen, M.A. and Chuang, I.L. (2000) Quantum Computation and Quantum Information. Cambridge University Press.