The benefits accrued from bottled water consumption have been growing globally, playing an important role in provision of clean drinking water to populations experiencing challenges in clean drinking water access. While bottled water is promoted as a solution to access to clean drinking water, it presents a socioeconomic challenge given its economic costs, safety concerns and socioeconomic inequalities in clean water access. The study adopted a descriptive research design to examine the socioeconomic costs and benefits of bottled water consumption, extents of bottled water consumption and aspects that explain continued bottled water consumption. The qualitative methods focused on extents and health cost benefits of bottled drinking water consumption. Quantitative methods focused on the monetary aspects of bottled water. The contingent valuation method was utilized to determine households’ willingness to pay for better drinking water services and an economic Cost Benefit Analysis of bottled water was done. Data was collected from 263 households using questionnaires and from 17 supermarket outlets using observation checklists. The study found that 38% of households consume bottled water regularly. 73% of households preferred to consume bottled water for other sources of water. Households were willing to pay 1.8% to 7.5% of their income for better drinking water quality services. Bottled water consumption was not viable, with a Benefit Cost Ratio of 0.36. Regression analysis showed that availability, water quality, taste, safety, and convenience of bottled water were aspects that explain bottled water consumption in Umoja with values of ？0.446, ？0.083, 0.350, ？0.194, and ？0.046 respectively. The study therefore proposes a multifaceted approach towards sustainable bottled water consumption extending beyond infrastructural improvements including interventions for behavioral changes, quality control enforcement, strengthening standards of bottled water supply and encouraging use of sustainable packaging.
References
[1]
Bouhlel, Z., Köpke, J., Mina, M., & Smakhtin, V. (2023). Global Bottled Water Industry: A Review of Impacts and Trends. United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health.
[2]
Cohen, A., Cui, J., Song, Q., Xia, Q., Huang, J., Yan, X. et al. (2021). Bottled Water Quality and Associated Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 20 Years of Published Data from China. EnvironmentalResearchLetters,17, Article ID: 013003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac2f65
[3]
Fleck, A. (2023). How Much Does a Bottle of Water Cost? Statista. https://www.statista.com/chart/29544/cost-of-a-bottle-of-water-around-the-world/#:~:text=World%20Water%20Day&text=A%201.5%2Dliter%20bottle%20of,at%20US%242.02%20per%20bottle
[4]
Fuente, D., Mulwa, R., & Cook, J. (2023). Out of Sight Out of Mind: Household Perceptions of “Fair” Water Prices in Nairobi, Kenya. Water Resources Research, 59, e2022WR033374. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022wr033374
[5]
He, S., Jordan, J., & Paudel, K. (2008). Economic Evaluation of Bottled Water Consumption as an Averting Means: Evidence from a Hedonic Price Analysis. AppliedEconomicsLetters,15, 337-342. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504850600706040
[6]
Hutton, G., & Haller, L. (2004). Evaluation of the Costs and Benefits of Water and Sanitation Improvements at the Global Level. Water, Sanitation and Health Protection of the Human Environment World Health Organization.
[7]
Hutton, G., & Varughese, M. (2016). The Costs of Meeting the 2030 Sustainable Development Goal Targets on Drinking Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene. World Bank Group. https://doi.org/10.1596/K8543
[8]
Kaiser, S., & Spuhler, D. (2019). Bottled Water. Sustainable Sanitation and Water Management. https://sswm.info/water-nutrient-cycle/water-distribution/hardwares/non-piped-distribution/bottled-water
[9]
Katonge, J. H., & Namangaya, M. A. (2024). Assessment of Bottled Drinking Water Quality, Safety and Community Perceptions in Dodoma City, Tanzania. TanzaniaJournalofScience,50, 376-386. https://doi.org/10.4314/tjs.v50i2.16
[10]
KNBS (2019). Kenra Population and Housing Census. Volume 1, Population by County and Subcounty.
[11]
Maselela, J. L., Mokoena, M. M., Mokgobu, M. I., & Mudau, L. S. (2024). The Microbiological Quality of Bottled and Tap Water: Risks and Regulations. SustainableEnvironment,10, Article ID: 2415168. https://doi.org/10.1080/27658511.2024.2415168
[12]
Massoud, M. A., Maroun, R., Abdelnabi, H., Jamali, I. I., & El-Fadel, M. (2013). Public Perception and Economic Implications of Bottled Water Consumption in Underprivileged Urban Areas. EnvironmentalMonitoringandAssessment,185, 3093-3102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2775-x
[13]
Miller, M., (2006). Bottled Water: Why Is It So Big? Causes for the Rapid Growth of Bottled Water Industries. Undergraduate Thesis, University Honors Program.
[14]
Mittal, N., & Prasad, Y. E. (2022). Bottled Water Market. Allied Market Research.
[15]
Mohamed, A. S., Nyerere, A., Sang, W. K., & Ngayo M. (2021). Bottled Water Brands Are Contaminated with Multidrug Resistant Bacteria in Nairobi, Kenya. F1000Research, 9, Article 1337.
[16]
Njeru, J. M. (2016). FactorsInfluencingCustomerChoiceofBottledWaterBrands:ACaseofNairobiCentralBusinessDistrict. Ph.D. Thesis, Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University.
[17]
Nyarko, K. B., Odai, S. N., Owusu, P. A., & Quartey, E. K. (2008). Water Supply Coping Strategies in Accra. In 33rdWEDCInternationalConference:AccesstoSanitationandSafeWater:GlobalPartnershipsandLocal Actions, Accra (pp. 417-420). United States International University-Africa (USIU-Africa).
[18]
Ochungo, E. A., Ouma, G. O., Obiero, J. P. O., & Odero, N. A. (2019). The Implication of Unreliable Urban Water Supply Service: The Case of Vendor Water Cost in Langata Sub County, Nairobi City, Kenya. JournalofWaterResourceandProtection,11, 896-935. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2019.117055
[19]
Parag, Y., Elimelech, E., & Opher, T. (2023). Bottled Water: An Evidence-Based Overview of Economic Viability, Environmental Impact, and Social Equity. Sustainability,15, Article 9760. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129760
[20]
Prüss-Ustün, A., Wolf, J., Bartram, J., Clasen, T., Cumming, O., Freeman, M. C. et al. (2019). Burden of Disease from Inadequate Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Selected Adverse Health Outcomes: An Updated Analysis with a Focus on Low-and Middle-Income Countries. InternationalJournalofHygieneandEnvironmentalHealth,222, 765-777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.05.004
[21]
Qian, N. (2018). Bottled Water or Tap Water? A Comparative Study of Drinking Water Choices on University Campuses. Water,10, Article 59. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10010059
[22]
Shively, G. (2012). AnOverviewofBenefit-CostAnalysis. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255661807_An_Overview_of_Benefit-Cost_Analysis
[23]
Van, K. Q. (2013). Household’sWillingness-To-PayEstimationforSafeDrinkingWater:ACaseStudyinVietnam. Ph.D. Thesis, Colorado State University.
[24]
Walter, C. T., Kooy, M., & Prabaharyaka, I. (2017). The Role of Bottled Drinking Water in Achieving SDG 6.1: An Analysis of Affordability and Equity from Jakarta, Indonesia. JournalofWater,SanitationandHygieneforDevelopment,7, 642-650. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2017.046
[25]
Wardrop, N. A., Dzodzomenyo, M., Aryeetey, G., Hill, A. G., Bain, R. E. S., & Wright, J. (2017). Estimation of Packaged Water Consumption and Associated Plastic Waste Production from Household Budget Surveys. EnvironmentalResearchLetters,12, Article ID: 074029. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa751f
