Objective: This study examined how different patterns of social media use—namely active and passive engagement on Xiaohongshu—affect users’ attitudes toward gender equality, and how these relationships are moderated by identity anxiety and social comparison. Method: A sample of 507 Chinese adults completed measures of social networking site (SNS) use, identity anxiety, social comparison, and gender attitudes. Structural equation modeling was employed to test hypothesized moderation effects. Results: Neither active nor passive SNS use independently predicted attitudes toward gender equality. However, identity anxiety significantly moderated both relationships. Specifically, SNS use was positively associated with egalitarian gender attitudes among individuals with low identity anxiety but negatively associated among those with high identity anxiety. Social comparison did not significantly moderate the effects. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the psychological context in which SNS is used—particularly one’s level of identity anxiety—critically influences how digital engagement shapes social beliefs. The implications point to the importance of digital literacy, targeted mental health support, and inclusive platform design in promoting egalitarian attitudes.
References
[1]
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions. Sage Publications.
[2]
Andreassen, C. S., Pallesen, S., & Griffiths, M. D. (2017). The Relationship between Addictive Social Media Use and Mental Health. PLOS ONE, 12, e0187999.
[3]
Appel, H., Gerlach, A. L., & Crusius, J. (2016). The Interplay between Facebook Use, Social Comparison, Envy, and Depression. Current Opinion in Psychology, 9, 44-49.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.10.006
[4]
Attané, I. (2012). Being a Woman in China Today: A Demography of Gender. China Perspectives, 2012, 5-15. https://doi.org/10.4000/chinaperspectives.6013
[5]
Bai, X. J., Liu, X., & Liu, Z. J. (2013). The Mediating Role of Social Comparison in the Relationship between Achievement Goals and Academic Self-Efficacy among Junior High School Students. Psychological Science, 36, 1413-1420.
[6]
Baumeister, R. F. (1997). Identity, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of Personality Psychology (pp. 681-710). Elsevier.
https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012134645-4/50027-5
[7]
Bianchi, S. M., Sayer, L. C., Milkie, M. A., & Robinson, J. P. (2012). Housework: Who Did, Does or Will Do It, and How Much Does It Matter? Social Forces, 91, 55-63.
https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sos120
[8]
Bolzendahl, C. I., & Myers, D. J. (2004). Feminist Attitudes and Support for Gender Equality: Opinion Change in Women and Men, 1974-1998. Social Forces, 83, 759-789.
https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2005.0005
[9]
Burke, M., Marlow, C., & Lento, T. (2010). Social Network Activity and Social Well-Being. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1909-1912). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/1753326.1753613
[10]
Charles, M., & Bradley, K. (2009). Indulging Our Gendered Selves? Sex Segregation by Field of Study in 44 Countries. American Journal of Sociology, 114, 924-976.
https://doi.org/10.1086/595942
[11]
Charlesworth, T. E., & Banaji, M. R. (2021). Patterns of Implicit and Explicit Attitudes. Psychological Review, 128, 1-38.
[12]
Cheek, J. M., Tropp, L. R., Chen, L. C., & Underwood, M. K. (1994). Identity Orientations: Personal, Social, and Collective Aspects of Identity. In The 102nd Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association.
[13]
Chen, R., Zhang, Y., Liu, X., & Zhao, J. (2024). Digital Ecosystems in China: A Case Study of Xiaohongshu. Asian Journal of Communication, 39, 1-15.
[14]
Chen, X., Li, Y., & Zhang, W. (2023). Rural-Urban Migration and Identity Anxiety among Chinese Youth: A National Survey. Journal of Youth Studies, 26, 512-530.
[15]
Chen, X., Wang, Y., & Liu, Z. (2020). Social Identity Threat and Mental Health among Rural-to-Urban Migrants in China. Journal of Social Issues, 76, 632-654.
[16]
China Youth Daily Social Survey Center (2023). Report on Gender Attitudes among Chinese Youth.
[17]
Chou, H. G., & Edge, N. (2012). “They Are Happier and Having Better Lives than I Am”: The Impact of Using Facebook on Perceptions of Others’ Lives. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15, 117-121. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2011.0324
[18]
Collins, R. L. (1996). For Better or Worse: The Impact of Upward Social Comparison on Self-Evaluations. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 51-69.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.51
[19]
Cooke, F. L. (2010). Women’s Participation in Employment in Asia: A Comparative Analysis of China, India, Japan and South Korea. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 21, 2249-2270. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2010.509627
[20]
Correll, S. J. (2004). Constraints into Preferences: Gender, Status, and Emerging Career Aspirations. American Sociological Review, 69, 93-113.
https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240406900106
[21]
Das Gupta, M., Zhenghua, J., Bohua, L., Zhenming, X., Chung, W., & Hwa-Ok, B. (2003). Why Is Son Preference So Persistent in East Asia? Journal of Development Economics, 72, 1-34.
[22]
Deters, F. G., & Mehl, M. R. (2013). Does Posting Facebook Status Updates Increase or Decrease Loneliness? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 1-15.
[23]
Duggan, M., & Smith, A. (2013). Social Media Update 2013. Pew Research Center.
https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2013/12/30/social-media-update-2013/
[24]
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2012). Social Role Theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. Kruglanski, & E. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology (pp. 458-476). SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n49
[25]
Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The Benefits of Facebook “friends:” Social Capital and College Students’ Use of Online Social Network Sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12, 1143-1168.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x
[26]
Else-Quest, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2021). Intersectionality in Quantitative Psychological Research: II. Methods and Techniques. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40, 155-170.
[27]
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. Norton.
[28]
Fardouly, J., Diedrichs, P. C., Vartanian, L. R., & Halliwell, E. (2015). Social Comparisons on Social Media: The Impact of Facebook on Young Women’s Body Image Concerns and Mood. Body Image, 13, 38-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.12.002
[29]
Fardouly, J., Willburger, B. K., & Vartanian, L. R. (2020). Social Media and Gender Role Comparisons. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 44, 1-15.
[30]
Feinstein, B. A., Hershenberg, R., Bhatia, V., Latack, J. A., Meuwly, N., & Davila, J. (2013). Negative Social Comparison on Facebook and Depressive Symptoms: Rumination as a Mechanism. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 2, 161-170.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033111
[31]
Feng, N., & Kim, S. (2023). Upward Social Comparison and Anxiety in Visual Platforms. Communication Research, 50, 1-20.
[32]
Festinger, L. (1954). A Theory of Social Comparison Processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872675400700202
[33]
Gibbons, F. X., & Buunk, B. P. (1999). Individual Differences in Social Comparison: Development of a Scale of Social Comparison Orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 129-142. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.1.129
[34]
Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age. Stanford University Press.
[35]
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating Hostile and Benevolent Sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491-512.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491
[36]
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2022). Ambivalent Sexism in the 21st Century. Current Opinion in Psychology, 48, 1-6.
[37]
Goffman, E. (1959). The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Anchor Books.
[38]
Greenhalgh, S. (1985). Sexual Stratification: The Other Side of “Growth with Equity” in East Asia. Population and Development Review, 11, 265-314.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1973489
[39]
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (2000). Measuring Individual Differences in Implicit Cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
[40]
Guo, Q. (2023). Xiaohongshu as a Global-Local Hybrid Space. Chinese Journal of Sociology, 47, 1-25.
[41]
Hannum, E., Kong, P., & Zhang, Y. (2019). Gender Disparities in China. China Quarterly, 237, 1-22.
[42]
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-Discrepancy: A Theory Relating Self and Affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.94.3.319
[43]
Horton, D., & Richard Wohl, R. (1956). Mass Communication and Para-Social Interaction. Psychiatry, 19, 215-229. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1956.11023049
[44]
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria versus New Alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
[45]
Hu, Y., & Scott, J. (2016). Family and Gender Values in China. Journal of Family Issues, 37, 1267-1293. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x14528710
[46]
Huang, F., Zhang, X., & Liu, Y. (2022). Algorithmic Curation and Community Building on Xiaohongshu. New Media & Society, 24, 1856-1875.
[47]
Inglehart, R., & Norris, P. (2003). Rising Tide: Gender Equality and Cultural Change. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511550362
[48]
Inglehart, R., & Welzel, C. (2005). Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence. Cambridge University Press.
[49]
Ji, Y. (2017). A Mosaic Temporality: New Dynamics of the Gender and Marriage System in Urban China. Tempo Social, 29, 69-89.
[50]
Krasnova, H., Wenninger, H., Widjaja, T., & Buxmann, P. (2013). Envy on Facebook: A Hidden Threat to Users’ Life Satisfaction? In Wirtschaftsinformatik Proceedings 2013 (pp. 1-16). Springer.
[51]
Li, M., & Liu, X. (2021). Gender and Generational Trends in Chinese Social Media Use. Gender & Technology Review, 5, 1-15.
[52]
Li, S., & Jiang, Q. (2021). Son Preference in China. Population Research and Policy Review, 40, 1-24.
[53]
Li, X., & Chen, L. (2024). Social Media and Evolving Gender Attitudes in China. Feminist Media Studies, 24, 1-18.
[54]
Li, Y., Zhang, W., & Chen, L. (2022). Education and Gender Attitudes in China: The Role of Media Exposure. Sex Roles, 86, 543-558.
[55]
Liu, D. et al. (2023). Passive Social Media Use and Psychological Well-Being. Current Opinion in Psychology, 45, Article ID: 101285.
[56]
Liu, W. et al. (2024). Platform Affordances and Psychological Well-Being. Journal of Affective Disorders, 350, 1-10.
[57]
Liu, X., Zhao, J., & Li, R. (2019). Social Media Use and Identity Anxiety among Chinese Youth. Computers in Human Behavior, 95, 1-8.
[58]
Major, B., Kunstman, J. W., Malta, B. B., Sawyer, P. J., Townsend, S. S., & Mendes, W. B. (2018). Suspicion of Motives Predicts Minorities’ Responses to Positive Feedback in Interracial Interactions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 78, 181-188.
[59]
Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in Adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of Adolescent Psychology (pp. 159-187). Wiley.
[60]
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.98.2.224
[61]
Meier, A., & Reinecke, L. (2021). Computer-Mediated Communication, Social Media, and Mental Health. Annual Review of Psychology, 72, 1-28.
[62]
Murphy, R., Tao, R., & Lu, X. (2011). Son Preference in Rural China: Patrilineal Families and Socioeconomic Change. Population and Development Review, 37, 665-690.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2011.00452.x
[63]
National Health Commission (2022). Mental Health Survey of Chinese Youth.
[64]
Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Hansen, J. J., Devos, T., Lindner, N. M., Ranganath, K. A., Smith, C. T., Olson, K. R., Chugh, D., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2007). Pervasiveness and Correlates of Implicit Attitudes and Stereotypes. European Review of Social Psychology, 18, 36-88. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280701489053
[65]
Park, S., & Yang, Y. (2023). Cross-Cultural Engagement on Xiaohongshu. Social Media + Society, 9, 1-12.
[66]
Preacher, K. J., Curran, P. J., & Bauer, D. J. (2006). Computational Tools for Probing Interactions in Multiple Linear Regression, Multilevel Modeling, and Latent Curve Analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31, 437-448.
https://doi.org/10.3102/10769986031004437
[67]
Przybylski, A. K., Murayama, K., DeHaan, C. R., & Gladwell, V. (2013). Motivational, Emotional, and Behavioral Correlates of Fear of Missing Out. Computers in Human Behavior, 29, 1841-1848. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.02.014
[68]
R Core Team (2025). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (Version 4.4.1) [Computer Software]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
https://www.R-project.org/
[69]
Ridgeway, C. L. (2011). Framed by Gender. Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199755776.001.0001
[70]
Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 1-36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
Stein, M. B., & Kean, Y. M. (2000). Disability and Quality of Life in Social Phobia: Epidemiologic Findings. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1606-1613.
https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.10.1606
[73]
Sun, S., & Chen, F. (2021). Reproducing Gender Inequality in Contemporary China: A Qualitative Analysis of Social Stratification and Gender Roles. Journal of Family Issues, 42, 1259-1283.
[74]
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict. In W. G. Austin, & S. Worchel (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 33-47). Brooks/Cole.
[75]
Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a Self-Evaluation Maintenance Model of Social Behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 181-227.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60227-0
[76]
Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2017). Facebook and Body Image Concern in Adolescent Girls: A Prospective Study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 50, 80-83.
https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22640
[77]
Toma, C. L., & Hancock, J. T. (2013). Self-Affirmation Underlies Facebook Use. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 321-331. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212474694
[78]
Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. (1987). Redis-Covering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory. Blackwell.
[79]
Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2018). Associations between Screen Time and Lower Psychological Well-Being among Children and Adolescents: Evidence from a Population-Based study. Preventive Medicine Reports, 12, 271-283.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2018.10.003
[80]
Valkenburg, P. M., Koutamanis, M., & Vossen, H. G. M. (2017a). The Concurrent and Longitudinal Relationships between Adolescents’ Use of Social Network Sites and Their Social Self-esteem. Computers in Human Behavior, 76, 35-41.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.008
[81]
Valkenburg, P. M., Peter, J., & Schouten, A. P. (2017b). Social Media Use and Well-Being. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13, 32-36.
[82]
Verduyn, P., Lee, D. S., Park, J., Shablack, H., Orvell, A., Bayer, J. et al. (2015). Passive Facebook Usage Undermines Affective Well-Being: Experimental and Longitudinal Evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144, 480-488.
https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000057
[83]
Verduyn, P., Ybarra, O., Résibois, M., Jonides, J., & Kross, E. (2020). Social Comparison on Social Media. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1, 1-12.
[84]
Vogel, E. A., Rose, J. P., Roberts, L. R., & Eckles, K. (2014). Social Comparison, Social Media, and Self-Esteem. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3, 206-222.
https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000047
[85]
Wang, C., & Yeh, E. K. (2017). Identity Conflict and Adaptation among Rural-to-Urban Migrants in China. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 48, 715-730.
[86]
Wang, L., & Zhang, R. (2021). The Mediating Role of Social Comparison in the Relationship between Passive Social Media Use and Identity Anxiety. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 24, 512-520.
[87]
Wang, T. (2008). Implicit Social Cognition Research on the Relationship between Self-Esteem, Gender Identity, and Gender Attitudes. Master’s Thesis, Soochow University.
[88]
Wang, T., & Zhang, H. (2022). Identity Anxiety in Algorithmic Environments. Chinese Sociological Review, 54, 1-20.
[89]
Wang, Y., Liu, Z., Chen, F., & Hu, Y. (2017). Upward Social Comparison and Mental Health in China. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 20, 1-12.
[90]
Wang, Y., Zhang, H., & Li, R. (2022). Xiaohongshu and Mental Health. Chinese Journal of Psychology, 64, 1-15.
[91]
Wegmann, E., Oberst, U., Stodt, B., & Brand, M. (2020). Online-Specific Fear of Missing Out and Internet-Use Expectancies Contribute to Symptoms of In-ternet-Communication Disorder. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 5, 33-42.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2017.04.001
[92]
Wilson, J., & Tan, H. (2022). TikTok Refugees and Platform Migration. International Journal of Digital Culture, 6, 1-15.
[93]
World Economic Forum (2022). Global Gender Gap Report 2022.
[94]
Wu, Y., & Leung, L. (2021). Gender Role Portrayals on Xiaohongshu: A Content Analysis. Asian Journal of Communication, 31, 345-362.
[95]
Xu, J., & Li, Y. (2023). Parasocial Relationships in China’s Social Commerce. Cyberpsychology Review, 7, 1-15.
[96]
Xu, X., & Zhang, L. (2022). Social Media Use and Body Dissatisfaction among Chinese Young Women: The Mediating Roles of Upward Appearance Comparison and Thin-Ideal Internalization. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 46, 228-243.
[97]
Yang, H., & Wang, J. (2023). The Dark Side of Xiaohongshu: How Passive Use Exacerbates Identity Anxiety among Rural Youth. New Media & Society, 25, 89-107.
[98]
Yang, J. et al. (2022). Achievement Comparisons and Hopelessness. Journal of Youth Studies, 25, 1-15.
[99]
Yu, D. (2024). Identity Anxiety among Rural University Students: Effects of Passive SNS Use. Master’s Thesis, Southwest University.
[100]
Zhang, H., & Li, W. (2020). Rural-Urban Identity Conflict and Mental Health among Chinese College Students. Journal of Adolescence, 80, 102-113.
[101]
Zhang, H., & Sun, T. (2023). Rural Youth, Social Media, and Shifting Gender Norms in China. Journal of Gender Studies, 32, 45-60.
[102]
Zhang, W. et al. (2015). Traditional vs. Modern Identities in Chinese Youth. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46, 1-18.
[103]
Zhang, Y. (2008). Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities among Chinese Adolescents. Chinese Sociology & Anthropology, 40, 83-102.
[104]
Zhang, Y., & Wang, L. (2023). The Rise of Xiaohongshu: User Growth and Platform Evolution. Journal of Chinese Social Media Studies, 8, 1-20.
[105]
Zhao, N., & Fu, Y. (2022). Does Social Media Use Reduce Subjective Well-Being? A Longitudinal Analysis in China. New Media & Society, 24, 456-475.
[106]
Zhao, N., Fu, Y., & Li, M. (2021a). Performing Identity on Xiaohongshu: How Rural Chinese Youth Negotiate Urban Belonging. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 26, 267-283.
[107]
Zhao, R., Chen, M., & Li, H. (2021b). Digital Identity Performance on Lifestyle Platforms. Computers in Human Behavior, 120, 106745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106745
[108]
Zhou, Y. (2020). The Gender Revolution in China. Chinese Sociological Review, 52, 1-26.
[109]
Zuo, J., & Bian, Y. (2001). Gendered Resources, Division of Housework, and Perceived Fairness—A Case in Urban China. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 1122-1133.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.01122.x
