The Internet of Things (IoT) is rapidly developing with the promotion of new technologies such as LoRa, which offers extensive coverage, low power consumption, and strong anti-interference capabilities. This study focuses on the application of LoRa technology in multi-floor home environments, particularly addressing the challenges of signal multipath propagation. We conducted comprehensive measurements of LoRa signal strength and path loss across different floors and rooms. Through our path loss model analysis, notable differences were observed in Line-of-Sight (LOS) and Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) environments, with initial path loss values of 58.32 decibels and 51.52 decibels, respectively, and standard deviations of 18.42 decibels for LOS and 2.84 decibels for NLOS. Temporal fading analysis, using Rayleigh and Rician distributions, revealed significant variations in signal strength between daytime and nighttime, with some rooms being more stable during the daytime and others more stable at nighttime due to differences in the architectural structure and functionality of various rooms within the home environment. Packet reception rate (PRR) ranged from 89.07% to 99.89%, highlighting the reliability of data transmission under different conditions. This research fills a critical gap in the literature by providing empirical data on indoor multi-floor home environments and significantly contributes by verifying and modeling path loss and temporal fading, thereby improving the design and deployment strategies for LoRa-based smart home systems.
References
[1]
You, I., Pau, G., Salerno, V.M. and Sharma, V. (2019) Special Issue ‘Internet of Things for Smart Homes’. Sensors, 19, Article 4173. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194173
[2]
Opipah, S., Qodim, H., Miharja, D., Hamidi, E.A.Z. and Juhana, T. (2020) Prototype Design of Smart Home System Base on LoRa. 2020 6thInternational Conference on Wireless and Telematics (ICWT), Yogyakarta, 3-4 September 2020, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICWT50448.2020.9243643
[3]
Zhong, C. and Nie, X. (2024) A Novel Single-Channel Edge Computing LoRa Gateway for Real-Time Confirmed Messaging. Scientific Reports, 14, Article No. 8369. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-59058-8
[4]
Zhong, C., Nie, X.Z. and Peng, P. (2024) Novel Power Conservation Methods for LoRa-Based Infrared Sensors in Smart Building. IEEE SensorsJournal, 24, 15311-15326.
[5]
Kamann, A., Held, P., Perras, F., Zaumseil, P., Brandmeier, T. and Schwarz, U. (2018) Automotive Radar Multipath Propagation in Uncertain Environments. 2018 21st International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Maui, HI, USA, 4-7 November 2018, 859-864. https://doi.org/10.1109/ITSC.2018.8570016
[6]
Tozlu, S. (2011) Feasibility of Wi-Fi Enabled Sensors for Internet of Things. 2011 7th International Wireless Communications and Mobile ComputingConference, Istanbul, 4-8 July 2011, 291-296. https://doi.org/10.1109/IWCMC.2011.5982548
[7]
Ramya, C.M., Shanmugaraj, M. and Prabakaran, R. (2011) Study on Zig-Bee Technology. 2011 3rd International Conference on ElectronicsComputer Technology, Kanyakumari, 8-10 April 2011, 297-301. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICECTECH.2011.5942102
[8]
Danbatta, S.J. and Varol, A. (2019) Comparison of Zigbee, Z-Wave, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth Wireless Technologies Used in Home Automation. 2019 7th International Symposium on Digital Forensics and Security (ISDFS), Barcelos, 10-12 June 2019, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISDFS.2019.8757472
[9]
Pham, C. and Ehsan, M. (2021) Dense Deployment of LoRa Networks: Expectations and Limits of Channel Activity Detection and Capture Effect for Radio Channel Access. Sensors, 21, Article 825. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21030825
[10]
Shea, S. (2017) LPWAN (Low-Power Wide Area Network). https://www.techtarget.com/iotagenda/definition/LPWAN-low-power-wide-area-network
[11]
Durgin, G., Rappaport, T. and Xu, H. (1998) Measurements and Models for Radio Path Loss and Penetration Loss in and around Homes and Trees at 5.85 GHz. IEEE Transactions on Communications, 46, 1484-1496. https://doi.org/10.1109/26.729393
[12]
Rashdan, I., De Ponte Muller, F., Jost, T., Sand, S. and Caire, G. (2019) Large-Scale Fading Characteristics and Models for Vehicle-to-Pedestrian Channel at 5-GHz. IEEE Access, 7, 107648-107658. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2933264
[13]
Tang, P., Zhang, J., Molisch, A., Smith, P., Shafi, M. and Tian, L. (2018) Estimation of the K-Factor for Temporal Fading from Single-Snapshot Wideband Measurements. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 68, 49-63. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2018.2878352
[14]
Tang, W., Chen, M., Chen, X., Dai, J., Han, Y., Di Renzo, M., Zeng, Y., Jin, S., Cheng, Q. and Cui, T. (2020) Wireless Communications with Reconfigurable Intelligent Surface: Path Loss Modeling and Experimental Measurement. IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, 20, 421-439. https://doi.org/10.1109/TWC.2020.3024887
[15]
Sulyman, A., Alwarafy, A., Maccartney, G., Rappaport, T. and Alsanie, A. (2016) Directional Radio Propagation Path Loss Models for Millimeterwave Wireless Networks in the 28-, 60-, and 73-GHz Bands. IEEE Transactionson Wireless Communications, 15, 6939-6947. https://doi.org/10.1109/TWC.2016.2594067
[16]
Muqaibel, A., Safaai-Jazi, A., Attiya, A., Woerner, B. and Riad, S. (2006) Path-Loss and Time Dispersion Parameters for Indoor UWB Propagation. IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, 5, 550-559. https://doi.org/10.1109/TWC.2006.1611085
[17]
Ding, T., Ding, M., Mao, G., Lin, Z. and Lopez-Perez, D. (2015) Uplink Performance Analysis of Dense Cellular Networks with LoS and NLoS Transmissions. IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, 15, 2365-2380. https://doi.org/10.1109/TWC.2015.2503391
[18]
Santos, P.M., Abrudan, T. and Aguiar, A. (2014) Impact of Position Errors on Path loss Model Estimation for Device-to-Device Channels. IEEETransactions on Wireless Communications, 13, 2353-2361. https://doi.org/10.1109/TWC.2014.040214.131082
[19]
Kyro, M., Haneda, K., Simola, J., Nakai, K., Takizawa, K., Hagiwara, H. and Vainikainen, P. (2011) Measurement Based Path Loss and Delay Spread Modeling in Hospital Environments at 60 GHz. IEEE Transactions onWireless Communications, 10, 2423-2427. https://doi.org/10.1109/TWC.2011.062211.101601
[20]
Ding, T., Ding, M., Mao, G., Lin, Z. and Lopez-Perez, D. (2017) Uplink Performance Analysis of Dense Cellular Networks with LoS and NLoS Transmissions. IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, 16, 2601-2613. https://doi.org/10.1109/TWC.2017.2669023
[21]
Linka, H., Rademacher, M. and Aliu, O. (2018) Path Loss Models for Low-Power Wide-Area Networks: Experimental Results Using LoRa. VDE ITG-Fachbericht Mobilkommunikation, Osnabrück, 16 May 2018, 1-33.
[22]
Yang, A., He, Z., Xing, C., Fei, Z. and Kuang, J. (2015) The Role of Largescale Fading in Uplink Massive Mimo Systems. IEEE Transactions onVehicular Technology, 65, 477-483. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2015.2397553
[23]
Van Chien, T., Mollen, C. and Bjornson, E. (2018) Large-Scale-Fading Decoding in Cellular Massive Mimo Systems with Spatially Correlated Channels. IEEE Transactions on Communications, 67, 2746-2762. https://doi.org/10.1109/TCOMM.2018.2889090
[24]
Chen, Z., Sohrabi, F. and Yu, W. (2021) Sparse Activity Detection in Multicell Massive Mimo Exploiting Channel Large-Scale Fading. IEEE Transactionson Signal Processing, 69, 3768-3781. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSP.2021.3090679
[25]
Fengler, A., Haghighatshoar, S., Jung, P. and Caire, G. (2021) Non-Bayesian Activity Detection, Large-Scale Fading Coefficient Estimation, and Unsourced Random Access with a Massive Mimo Receiver. IEEE Transactionson Information Theory, 67, 2925-2951. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIT.2021.3065291
[26]
Chen, L., Loschonsky, M. and Reindl, L. (2010) Large-Scale Fading Model for Mobile Communications in Disaster and Salvage Scenarios. 2010 International Conference on Wireless Communications & Signal Processing (WCSP), Suzhou, 21-23 October 2010, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1109/WCSP.2010.5633059
[27]
Agrawal, P. and Patwari, N. (2009) Correlated Link Shadow Fading in Multihop Wireless Networks. IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, 8, 4024-4036. https://doi.org/10.1109/TWC.2009.071293
[28]
Chandrasekaran, G., Ergin, M., Gruteser, M., Martin, R., Yang, J. and Chen, Y. (2009) Decode: Exploiting Shadow Fading to Detect Comoving Wireless Devices. IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 8, 1663-1675. https://doi.org/10.1109/TMC.2009.131
[29]
Abdi, A. and Kaveh, M. (2011) A Comparative Study of Two Shadow Fading Models in Ultrawideband and Other Wireless Systems. IEEE Transactionson Wireless Communications, 10, 1428-1434. https://doi.org/10.1109/TWC.2011.031611.100309
[30]
Reig, J. and Rubio, L. (2013) Estimation of the Composite Fast Fading and Shadowing Distribution Using the Log-Moments in Wireless Communications. IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, 12, 3672-3681. https://doi.org/10.1109/TWC.2013.050713.120054
[31]
Chen, Y., Cheng, W. and Zhang, W. (2023) Reconfigurable Intelligent Surface Equipped UAV in Emergency Wireless Communications: A New Fading-Shadowing Model and Performance Analysis. IEEE Transactionson Communications, 72, 1821-1834. https://doi.org/10.1109/TCOMM.2023.3336223
[32]
Liu, L., Yao, Y., Cao, Z. and Zhang, M. (2021) DeepLoRa: Learning Accurate Path Loss Model for Long Distance Links in LPWAN. IEEE INFOCOM 2021—IEEE Conference on Computer Communications, Vancouver, 10-13 May 2021, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1109/INFOCOM42981.2021.9488784
[33]
Rademacher, M., Linka, H., Horstmann, T. and Henze, M. (2021) Path Loss in Urban Lora Networks: A Large-Scale Measurement Study. 2021 IEEE 94th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2021-Fall), Norman, 27-30 September 2021, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1109/VTC2021-Fall52928.2021.9625531
[34]
Budi, B. (2024) Distance Testing on Point to Point Communication with Lora Based on Rssi and Log Normal Shadowing Model. Journal of Energyand Electrical Engineering, 5, 89-93.
[35]
Masadan, N., Habaebi, M. and Yusoff, S. (2018) LoRa LPWAN Propagation Channel Modelling in IIUM Campus. 2018 7th International Conference on Computer and Communication Engineering (ICCCE), Kuala Lumpur, 19-20 September 2018, 14-19. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCCE.2018.8539327
[36]
Anzum, R., Habaebi, M., Islam, M., Hakim, G., Khandaker, M., Osman, H., Alamri, S. and Abdelrahim, E. (2022) A Multiwall Path-Loss Prediction Model Using 433 MHz LoRa-WAN Frequency to Characterize Foliage’s Influence in a Malaysian Palm Oil Plantation Environment. Sensors, 22, Article 5397. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22145397
[37]
González-Palacio, M., Tobón-Vallejo, D., Sepúlveda-Cano, L.M., Rúa, S., Pau, G. and Le, L.B. (2022) LoRaWAN Path Loss Measurements in an Urban Scenario Including Environmental Effects. Data, 8, Article 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/data8010004
[38]
Geng, Z. and Deng, H. (2022) Wireless Signal Propagation Path Loss Estimation. 2014 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society International Symposium (APSURSI), Memphis, 6-11 July 2014, 953-954.
[39]
Kurt, S. and Tavli, B. (2017) Path-Loss Modeling for Wireless Sensor Networks: A Review of Models and Comparative Evaluations. IEEE Antennas andPropagation Magazine, 59, 18-37. https://doi.org/10.1109/MAP.2016.2630035
[40]
Watson, G. (1967) Linear Least Squares Regression. The Annals of MathematicalStatistics, 38, 1679-1699. https://doi.org/10.1214/aoms/1177698603
[41]
Lee, J. and Baccelli, F. (2018) On the Effect of Shadowing Correlation on Wireless Network Performance. IEEE INFOCOM 2018—IEEE Conference on Computer Communications, Honolulu, 16-19 April 2018, 1601-1609. https://doi.org/10.1109/INFOCOM.2018.8485965
[42]
Alouini, M.-S. and Simon, M. (2002) Dual Diversity over Correlated Lognormal Fading Channels. IEEE Transactions on Communications, 50, 1946-1959. https://doi.org/10.1109/TCOMM.2002.806552
[43]
Xu, W., Kim, J., Huang, W., Kanhere, S., Jha, S. and Hu, W. (2019) Measurement, Characterization, and Modeling of Lora Technology in Multifloor Buildings. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 7, 298-310. https://doi.org/10.1109/JIOT.2019.2946900
[44]
Al-Noor, N.H. and Assi, N.K. (2020) Rayleigh-Rayleigh Distribution: Properties and Applications. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1591, Article 012038. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1591/1/012038
[45]
Karakuş, O., Kuruoglu, E. and Achim, A. (2021) A Modification of Rician Distribution for SAR Image Modelling. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202010.0209.v1
[46]
Ren, M., Zhang, Q. and Zhang, J. (2019) An Introductory Survey of Probability Density Function Control. Systems Science &Control Engineering, 7, 158-170. https://doi.org/10.1080/21642583.2019.1588804
[47]
Minh, H., Lavane, K., Lanh, L., Thinh, L., Cong, N., Ty, T., Downes, N. and Kumar, P. (2022) Developing Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves Based on Rainfall Cumulative Distribution Frequency (CDF) for Can Tho City, Vietnam. Earth, 3, 866-880. https://doi.org/10.3390/earth3030050
[48]
Abdi, A., Tepedelenlioglu, C., Kaveh, M. and Giannakis, G. (2001) On the Estimation of the K Parameter for the Rice Fading Distribution. IEEECommunications Letters, 5, 92-94. https://doi.org/10.1109/4234.913150
[49]
Katircioğlu, O., Isel, H., Ceylan, O., Taraktas, F. and Yagci, H.B. (2011) Comparing Ray Tracing, Free Space Path Loss and Logarithmic Distance Path Loss Models in Success of Indoor Localization with RSSI. 2011 19thTelecommunications Forum (TELFOR) Proceedings of Papers, Belgrade, 22-24 November 2011, 313-316. https://doi.org/10.1109/TELFOR.2011.6143552
[50]
Batalha, I.S., Castro, B.S.L., Lopes, A.V.R., Pelaes, E.G. and Cavalcante, G.P.S. (2015) Cross-Layer Modeling for Video Quality Loss on WLANs. 2015 9th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP), Lisbon, 13-17 April 2015, 1-5.
[51]
Agarwal, R. (2020) Pythagorean Triples before and after Pythagoras. Computation, 8, Article 62. https://doi.org/10.3390/computation8030062
