The drainage of the Hula wetlands and old Lake Hula was completed in 1957. Agricultural development replaced the natural ecosystem land use with agricultural cultivation. The Hula pre-drainage anaerobic conditions were replaced by organic matter oxidation and Sulfur and Nitrate carbonate enrichments. The ecosystem structure of highly diversified fauna and flora was devastated. During the post-drainage period, enhancement of accumulated carbonates and Gypsum (CaSO4) and organic matter oxidation created soil salinization and nitrate accumulation. Ammonia was oxidized to nitrate, and its accumulation was concerned to Kinneret water quality protection managers. Evaluation of long-term (1994-2024) study through monitoring program of the temporal and seasonal distributional pattern of Nitrate, Sulfate, pH, Alkalinity, and Electrical Conductivity within the Peat soil drained and pore-waters indicates soil moisture as the dominant impact factor which controls two geochemically independent coincide processes, nitrate migration and soil salinization.
References
[1]
Luther, G.W. and Church, T.M. (1988) Seasonal Cycling of Sulfur and Iron in Porewaters of a Delaware Salt Marsh. MarineChemistry, 23, 295-309. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4203(88)90100-4
[2]
Litaor, M., Reichman, O. and Shenker, M. (2011) Genesis, Classification and Human Modification of Peat and Mineral-Organic Soils, Hula Valley, Israel. Mires and Peat, 9, 1-9.
[3]
Levanon, D. (2023) Chapter-Forward: Agricultural Development and Soil Deterioration after the Hula Drainage. In: Gophen, M., Ed., Agriculture, Recreation, Water Quality and Nature Protection in the Hula Valley, Israel, Springer, vii-xx.
[4]
Gophen, M. and Levanon, D. (1994-2006) Hula Project Annual Reports. MIGAL and JNF (KKL). (1994-2005 in Hebrew, 2006 in English)
[5]
Gonen, E. (2007) Hula Project Annual Report. Jewish National Fund (Keren Kayemet LeIsrael), MIGAL-Scientific Research Institute and Israeli Water Authority, 133. (In Hebrew)
[6]
Barnea, I. (2008) Hula Project Annual Report. Jewish National Fund (Keren Kayemet LeIsrael), MIGAL-Scientific Research Institute and Israeli Water Authority, 159. (In Hebrew)
[7]
Barnea, I. and Kaplan, D. (2008-2018) Hula Project Annual Report. Jewish National Fund (Keren Kayemet LeIsrael), MIGAL-Scientific Research Institute and Israeli Water Authority, 156. (In Hebrew)
[8]
Perelson, O., Klein, D. and Kaplan, D. (2021-2023) Hula Project Annual Report. Jewish National Fund (Keren Kayemeth Lelsrael), MIGAL-Scientific Research Institute and Israeli Water Authority, 127. (In Hebrew)
[9]
Ravikovitch, S. (1948) Peat Soils and Soils Rich in Organic Matter in the Huleh Valley. Agric. Res. Station. Bull. No. 47 Rehovot.
[10]
Dimentman, C., Bromely, H.J. and Por, F.D. (1992) Lake Hula, Reconstruction of the Fauna and Hydrobiology of a Lost Lake. Publications of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 170. (Brief Summary in Hebrew)
[11]
Agron, N. and Fleisher, E. (1976) Quality and Distribution of Peat in the Hula Valley. Report No. Hydro/76. Geological Survey of Israel.
[12]
Brenner, S., Ikan, R., Agron, N.A. and Nissenbaum, A. (1978) Hula Valley Peat: Review of Chemical and Geochemical Aspects. SoilScience, 125, 226-232. https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-197804000-00006
[13]
Bein, A. (1986) Early Evolution and Transformation of Organic Matter in the Active Continental Jordan Rift Valley. OrganicGeochemistry, 10, 751-757. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0146-6380(86)80012-2
[14]
Bein, A. and Nielsen, H. (1988) Sulphur Diagenesis in Freshwater Lignites (Hula Basin, Israel): Implication for S-C Relationships in Organic Sediments. JournaloftheGeologicalSociety, 145, 133-136. https://doi.org/10.1144/gsjgs.145.1.0133
[15]
Ronen, D., Magaritz, M., Paldor, N. and Bachmat, Y. (1986) The Behavior of Groundwater in the Vicinity of the Water Table Evidenced by Specific Discharge Profiles. WaterResourcesResearch, 22, 1217-1224. https://doi.org/10.1029/wr022i008p01217
[16]
Gophen, M. (2023) Subterranean Migration of Nutrients in the Hula Valley. In: Gophen, M., Ed., Agriculture, Recreation, Water Quality and Nature Protection in the Hula Valley, Israel, Springer, 39-51.
[17]
Markel, D., Sass, E., Lazar, B. and Bein, A. (1998) Biogeochemical Evolution of S.A Sulfur-Iron Rich Aquatic System in a Reflooded Wetland Environment (Lake Agmon, Northern Israel). WetlandsEcologyandManagement, 6, 103-120. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1008407800060
[18]
Duani, M. and Bone, O. (2019) Agmon-Hula-Nature Production. Jewish National Fund, Keren Kayemet Le’Israel, Soil Development Department, Publisher Jerusalem, 188. (In Hebrew)
[19]
Duani, M. (2020) The Hula Swamp as a Symbol of Israel’s Developing Attitude To-WARDS the Environment. Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi Publisher, 182. (In Hebrew, English Abstract)
[20]
Gophen, M. (2023) Agriculture, Recreation, Water Quality and Nature Protection in the Hula Valley, Israel: 70 Years of a Mega-Ecological Project. Springer, 243. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23412-5
[21]
Avnimelech, Y., Dasberg, S., Harpaz, A. and Levin, I. (1978) Prevention of Nitrate Leakage from the Hula Basin, Israel. SoilScience, 125, 233-239. https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-197804000-00007
[22]
Levanon, D., Henis, Y., Okon, Y. and Dovrat, A. (1982) Alfalfa Saponins and Microbial Transformations of Nitrogen in Peat. SoilBiologyandBiochemistry, 14, 501-504. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-0717(82)90110-9
[23]
Marish, S. (1986) Chapter: Soil Survey in Hula Valley 1984/85. In: Zemach, M.M., Ed., WorkshoponHulaPeatManagementEsteemCompiled, Kinneret Authority and Kinneret Drainage Authority, 2-6.
[24]
Avnimelech, Y. (1986) Chapter: The Hula Peat Soil: Composition, Features and Coclusion. In: Zemach, M.M., Ed., WorkshoponHulaPeatManagementEsteemCompiled, Kinneret Authority and Kinneret Drainage Authority, 11-13. (In He-brew)
[25]
Gophen, M. and Orlov-Levin, V. (2024) Temporal, Spatial, and Hypsometrical Dispersion of Nutrients in the Hula Valley, Israel. OpenJournalofEcology, 14, 604-628. https://doi.org/10.4236/oje.2024.148035
[26]
Michaeli, A. (1979) Hula Lignite Project, Drainage Studies. TAHAL Consulting Engineers Ltd., Institute for Petroleum Research and Geophysics, Ministry of Energy and Infrastructure, 88.
[27]
AlMaarofi, S., Douabul, A. and Al-Saad, H. (2012) Mesopotamian Marshlands: Salinization Problem. JournalofEnvironmentalProtection, 3, 1295-1301. https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2012.310147
[28]
Mohamed, M.L., Diongue, D.M.L., Emvoutou, H.C., Mohamed, A.S., Jiddou, M. and Faye, S. (2020) Salinization Processes in the Benichab Coastal Aquifer-Mauritania. InternationalJournalofGeosciences, 11, 377-392. https://doi.org/10.4236/ijg.2020.116020
[29]
Litaor, I.M. and Eshel, G. (2003) Hydrogeology and Water Balance of the Agmon Region, Hula Valley, Conclusive Report. Water Commission, 69. (In Hebrew)
[30]
Grader, P. (1952) Isr. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. (1).1952, Geological Report on the Lower Peat Zone of the Hula Basin. Geol. Surv. Israel, 8 p. Interim Report, Israeli Geological Survey Institution, Jerusalem, Pulications.
[31]
Picard, L. (1963) The Quaternary in the Northern Jordan Valley. Proceedings of the Academy, 1, 1-34.
[32]
Hutchinson, H.E. and Cowgill, V.M. (1973) The Waters of Merom: A Study of Lake Huleh 3. The Major Constituents of a 54m Core. Archiv für Hydrobiologie, 72, 145-185.
[33]
Kafri, U. and Lang, B. (1979) Hula Lignite Project, Geological Report. Institute for Petroleum Research and Geophysics, Ministry of Energy and Infrastructure, Geological Survey of Israel, Hydrogeology Division; Report HYDRO/3/79, 85.
[34]
Levin, I. and Shoham, D. (1966) Soil Subsidence in the Reclaimed Hula Swamps 1958-1965, Interim Report. The Vulcani Institute for Agricultural Research, Irrigation Department and Tahal, Water Planning for Israel, Ltd. Drainage Division, 12. (In Hebrew, English Summary)
[35]
Meron, M. (1986) Workshop: Esteemed Evaluation of the Present Status of Hula Peat Soil Management (Abstracts). Kinneret Authority—Kinneret Drainage Authority, 47. (In Hebrew)
[36]
Neuman, S.P. and Dasberg, S. (1977) Peat Hydrology in the Hula Basin, Israel: II. Subsurface Flow Regime. JournalofHydrology, 32, 241-256. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(77)90019-1
[37]
Serruya, C. and Edelstein, M. (1979) The Lignite Project: Impact of the Hula Lignite in Mining on the Lake Kinneret Water Quality, Interim Report. Institute for Petroleum Research and Geophysics-Hula Lignite Project, Ministry of Energy and Infra-structure, 40.
[38]
Nishri, A., Stiller, M., Rimmer, A., Geifman, Y. and Krom, M. (1999) Lake Kinneret (the Sea of Galilee): The Effects of Diversion of External Salinity Sources and the Probable Chemical Composition of the Internal Salinity Sources. ChemicalGeology, 158, 37-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0009-2541(99)00007-8
[39]
Brand-Klivanski, S. (2015) Mechanisms of Geochemical Salinization in the Violated Swampy Soil in the Hula Valley, the Calcium-Sulfur Gypsum system. Ph.D. Thesis, Hebrew University. (In Hebrew, English Abstract)
[40]
Sun, Y. and Ellwood, M.J. (2025) Calcium Carbonate Cycling in the Southern Ocean: Insights from Dissolved Calcium and Potential Alkalinity Tracers. LimnologyandOceanographyLetters. https://doi.org/10.1002/lol2.10457
[41]
Vymazal, J., Brix, H., Cooper, P.F., Haberl, R., Pefler, R. and Laber, J. (1998) Removal Mechanisms and Types of Constructed Wetlands. In: Vymazal, J., Brix, H., Coopper, P.F. and Harberl, R., Eds., Construct Wetlands for Wastewater TreatmentinEurope, Backhuys Publisher, 17-66.
[42]
Vymazal, J. (1995) Algae and Element Cycling in Wetlands. CSC Press/Lewis Publisher.
[43]
Pecharova, E., Hezina, T., Prochazka, J., Prikryl, I. and Pokorny, J. (2001) Resto-Ration of Spoil Heaps in Northwestern Bohemia Using Wetlands. In: Vymazal, J., Ed., TransformationsofNutrientsinNaturalandConstructedWetlands, Backhuys Publishers, 129-142.
