Introduction: During pregnancy, the increased demand for all the nutrients required for the development of the foetus means that the maternal stock of trace elements and minerals may become unbalanced if dietary intake fails to compensate. The aim of this research is to determine the status of trace elements (calcium, copper, magnesium, selenium and zinc) in pregnant women in the city of Kisangani. Methods: We carried out an analytical cross-sectional study of non-pregnant and pregnant women living in Kisangani, from 05 October 2023 to 05 January 2024. Concentrations of trace elements in sera were analysed using an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrophotometer (ICP-MS Agilent 7700X). Statistical analysis of the data was performed using R software version 4.3.0. Results: The mean age was 26.3 ± 6.7 years; the mean copper and magnesium levels in the serum of pregnant women were 12.58 ± 1.13 micromol/l and 1.03 ± 1.03 mmol/l respectively. The medians for calcium and zinc were 1.49 mmol/l and 8.42 micromol/l. The selenium mode was 0.41 micromol/l. Variations in trace element levels in sera of pregnant women were 0.94 - 2.22 mmol/l for calcium; 0.31 - 0.78 micromol/l for selenium; and 7.29 - 12.72 micromol/l for zinc; 11.04 - 14.99 micromol/l for copper, and 0.082 - 1.05 mmol/l for magnesium. Conclusion: Serum trace element concentrations in pregnant women were lower than those observed in non-pregnant women. Trace element reserves in pregnant women depended on their nutrient status prior to pregnancy, hence, there was an urgent need for trace element balance prior to pregnancy.
References
[1]
Gernand, A.D., Schulze, K.J., Stewart, C.P., West, K.P. and Christian, P. (2016) Micronutrient Deficiencies in Pregnancy Worldwide: Health Effects and Prevention. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 12, 274-289. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2016.37
[2]
Wasowicz, W., Gromadzinska, J., Rydzynski, K. and Tomczak, J. (2003) Selenium Status of Low-Selenium Area Residents: Polish Experience. Toxicology Letters, 137, 95-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-4274(02)00383-1
[3]
Darnton-Hill, I. (2012) Global Burden and Significance of Multiple Micronutrient Deficiencies in Pregnancy. In: Nestlé Nutrition Institute Workshop Series, S. Karger AG, 49-60. https://doi.org/10.1159/000337421
[4]
Berti, C., Biesalski, H.K., Gärtner, R., Lapillonne, A., Pietrzik, K., Poston, L., et al. (2011) Micronutrients in Pregnancy: Current Knowledge and Unresolved Questions. Clinical Nutrition, 30, 689-701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2011.08.004
[5]
Lewicka, I., Kocyłowski, R., Grzesiak, M., Gaj, Z., Oszukowski, P. and Suliburska, J. (2017) Selected Trace Elements Concentrations in Pregnancy and Their Possible Role—Literature Review. Ginekologia Polska, 88, 509-514. https://doi.org/10.5603/gp.a2017.0093
[6]
Christian, P. and Stewart, C.P. (2010) Maternal Micronutrient Deficiency, Fetal Development, and the Risk of Chronic Disease. The Journal of Nutrition, 140, 437-445. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.109.116327
[7]
Gernand, A.D., Schulze, K.J., Stewart, C.P., West, K.P. and Christian, P. (2016) Micronutrient Deficiencies in Pregnancy Worldwide: Health Effects and Prevention. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 12, 274-289. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2016.37
[8]
Black, R.E. (2001) Micronutrients in Pregnancy. British Journal of Nutrition, 85, S193-S197. https://doi.org/10.1079/bjn2000314
[9]
Ramakrishnan, U., Manjrekar, R., Rivera, J., Gonzáles-Cossío, T. and Martorell, R. (1999) Micronutrients and Pregnancy Outcome: A Review of the Literature. Nutrition Research, 19, 103-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0271-5317(98)00178-x
[10]
Bremner, I. and Beattie, J.H. (1995) Copper and Zinc Metabolism in Health and Disease: Speciation and Interactions. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 54, 489-499. https://doi.org/10.1079/pns19950017
[11]
Matthews, Z., Channon, A., Neal, S., Osrin, D., Madise, N. and Stones, W. (2010) Examining the “Urban Advantage” in Maternal Health Care in Developing Countries. PLOS Medicine, 7, e1000327. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000327
[12]
Afata, T.N., Mekonen, S. and Tucho, G.T. (2023) Serum Concentration of Zinc, Copper, Iron, and Its Associated Factors among Pregnant Women of Small-Scale Farming in Western Ethiopia. Scientific Reports, 13, Article No. 4197. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-30284-w
[13]
Reddy, Y.S., Y, A., Ramalaksmi, B.A. and Kumar, B.D. (2014) Lead and Trace Element Levels in Placenta, Maternal and Cord Blood: A Cross-Sectional Pilot Study. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research, 40, 2184-2190. https://doi.org/10.1111/jog.12469
[14]
Pathak, P., Kapil, U., Kapoor, S.K., Saxena, R., Kumar, A., Gupta, N., et al. (2004) Prevalence of Multiple Micronutrient Deficiencies Amongst Pregnant Women in a Rural Area of Haryana. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 71, 1007-1014. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02828117
[15]
Eze, S.C., Ododo, N.A., Ugwu, E.O., Enebe, J.T., Onyegbule, O.A., Eze, I.O., et al. (2020) Serum Selenium Levels of Pre-Eclamptic and Normal Pregnant Women in Nigeria: A Comparative Study. PLOSONE, 15, e0238263. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238263
[16]
Lewandowska, M., Więckowska, B., Sajdak, S. and Lubiński, J. (2020) First Trimester Microelements and Their Relationships with Pregnancy Outcomes and Complications. Nutrients, 12, Article 1108. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041108
[17]
Tchamda, C. and Nkabkob, T. (n.d.) Caractéristiques des ménages, dans enquêtes dé-mographique et de santé Cameroun III. 17-33. https://books.google.cd
[18]
Zubero, M.B., Llop, S., Irizar, A., Murcia, M., Molinuevo, A., Ballester, F., et al. (2022) Serum Metal Levels in a Population of Spanish Pregnant Women. GacetaSanitaria, 36, 468-476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaceta.2021.07.006
[19]
Liu, X., Zhang, Y., Piao, J., Mao, D., Li, Y., Li, W., et al. (2017) Reference Values of 14 Serum Trace Elements for Pregnant Chinese Women: A Cross-Sectional Study in the China Nutrition and Health Survey 2010-2012. Nutrients, 9, Article 309. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9030309
[20]
Holmquist, E., Brantsæter, A.L., Meltzer, H.M., Jacobsson, B., Barman, M. and Sengpiel, V. (2021) Maternal Selenium Intake and Selenium Status during Pregnancy in Relation to Preeclampsia and Pregnancy-Induced Hypertension in a Large Norwegian Pregnancy Cohort Study. Science of The Total Environment, 798, Article 149271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149271
[21]
Djagbletey, R., Darkwa, E.O., DeGraft-Johnson, P.K.G., Sottie, D.A.Y., Essuman, R., Aryee, G., et al. (2018) Serum Calcium and Magnesium Levels in Normal Ghanaian Pregnant Women: A Comparative Cross-Sectional Study. OpenAccessMacedonianJournalofMedicalSciences, 6, 2006-2011. https://doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2018.352
[22]
Zhang, Z., Yuan, E., Liu, J., Lou, X., Jia, L., Li, X., et al. (2013) Gestational Age-Specific Reference Intervals for Blood Copper, Zinc, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Lead, and Cadmium during Normal Pregnancy. ClinicalBiochemistry, 46, 777-780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2013.03.004
[23]
Liang, C., Wu, X., Huang, K., Yan, S., Li, Z., Xia, X., et al. (2019) Trace Element Profiles in Pregnant Women's Sera and Umbilical Cord Sera and Influencing Factors: Repeated Measurements. Chemosphere, 218, 869-878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.11.115
[24]
Georgieva Bacelova, M., Dimitrova Gatseva, P., Ivanova Deneva, T., et al. (2024) Are the Elements Zinc, Copper, Magnesium, and Rubidium Related to Nutrition and Iodine Deficiency in Pregnant Bulgarian Women from Iodine Deficient Region? Central European Journal of Public Health, 32, 31-38.
[25]
Mekonen, E.G., Zegeye, A.F., Workneh, B.S., Ali, M.S., Gonete, A.T., Alemu, T.G., et al. (2024) Determinants of Micronutrient Supplementation during Pregnancy among Women in Three Sub-Saharan African Countries: A Multilevel Logistic Regression Model. FrontiersinGlobalWomen’sHealth, 5, Article 1449259. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgwh.2024.1449259
[26]
Jérémie, L.O., Emmanuel, K.L., Jean-Jeannot, J.S., Victor, B.M. and Gédéon, K.B. (2024) Trace Element Status in Women of Childbearing Age in Kisangani, Democratic Republic of the Congo. JournalofBiosciencesandMedicines, 12, 509-523. https://doi.org/10.4236/jbm.2024.1211039
[27]
Blumfield, M.L., Hure, A.J., Macdonald-Wicks, L., Smith, R. and Collins, C.E. (2012) Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Energy and Macronutrient Intakes during Pregnancy in Developed Countries. NutritionReviews, 70, 322-336. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2012.00481.x
[28]
Freeland-Graves, J.H., Sanjeevi, N. and Lee, J.J. (2015) Global Perspectives on Trace Element Requirements. JournalofTraceElementsinMedicineandBiology, 31, 135-141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2014.04.006
