Rational and Continuous Measurement of Emotional-Fingerprint, Emotional-Quotient and Categorical vs Proportional Recognition of Facial Emotions with M.A.R.I.E., Second Half
Context: The advent of Artificial Intelligence (AI) requires modeling prior to its implementation in algorithms for most human skills. This observation requires us to have a detailed and precise understanding of the interfaces of verbal and emotional communications. The progress of AI is significant on the verbal level but modest in terms of the recognition of facial emotions even if this functionality is one of the oldest in humans and is omnipresent in our daily lives. Dysfunction in the ability for facial emotional expressions is present in many brain pathologies encountered by psychiatrists, neurologists, psychotherapists, mental health professionals including social workers. It cannot be objectively verified and measured due to a lack of reliable tools that are valid and consistently sensitive. Indeed, the articles in the scientific literature dealing with Visual-Facial-Emotions-Recognition (ViFaEmRe), suffer from the absence of 1) consensual and rational tools for continuous quantified measurement, 2) operational concepts. We have invented a software that can use computer-morphing attempting to respond to these two obstacles. It is identified as the Method of Analysis and Research of the Integration of Emotions (M.A.R.I.E.). Our primary goal is to use M.A.R.I.E. to understand the physiology of ViFaEmRe in normal healthy subjects by standardizing the measurements. Then, it will allow us to focus on subjects manifesting abnormalities in this ability. Our second goal is to make our contribution to the progress of AI hoping to add the dimension of recognition of facial emotional expressions. Objective: To study: 1) categorical vs dimensional aspects of recognition of ViFaEmRe, 2) universality vs idiosyncrasy, 3) immediate vs ambivalent Emotional-Decision-Making, 4) the Emotional-Fingerprint of a face and 5) creation of population references data. Methods: M.A.R.I.E. enables the rational, quantified measurement of Emotional Visual Acuity (EVA) in an individual observer and a population aged 20 to 70 years. Meanwhile, it can measure the range and intensity of expressed emotions through three Face- Tests, quantify the performance of a sample of 204 observers with hypernormal measures of cognition, “thymia” (defined elsewhere), and low levels of anxiety, and perform analysis of the six primary emotions. Results: We have individualized the following continuous parameters: 1) “Emotional-Visual-Acuity”, 2) “Visual-Emotional-Feeling”, 3)
References
[1]
Eslinger, P.J., Anders, S., Ballarini, T., Boutros, S., Krach, S., Mayer, A.V., et al. (2021) The Neuroscience of Social Feelings: Mechanisms of Adaptive Social Functioning. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 128, 592-620. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.05.028
[2]
Zhang, D., Wang, X. and Zhang, S. (2023) Shared Leadership and Improvisation: Dual Perspective of Cognition-Affection. Behavioral Sciences, 13, Article 265. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13030265
[3]
Lange, J., Heerdink, M.W. and van Kleef, G.A. (2022) Reading Emotions, Reading People: Emotion Perception and Inferences Drawn from Perceived Emotions. Current Opinion in Psychology, 43, 85-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.06.008
[4]
De Panfilis, C., Antonucci, C., Meehan, K.B., Cain, N.M., Soliani, A., Marchesi, C., et al. (2019) Facial Emotion Recognition and Social-Cognitive Correlates of Narcissistic Features. Journal of Personality Disorders, 33, 433-449. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi_2018_32_350
[5]
Demirel, H., Yesilbas, D., Ozver, I., Yuksek, E., Sahin, F., Aliustaoglu, S., et al. (2014) Psychopathy and Facial Emotion Recognition Ability in Patients with Bipolar Affective Disorder with or without Delinquent Behaviors. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 55, 542-546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.11.022
[6]
Mauss, I.B. and Robinson, M.D. (2009) Measures of Emotion: A Review. Cognition & Emotion, 23, 209-237. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930802204677
[7]
Muukkonen, I. and Salmela, V.R. (2022) Representational Structure of fMRI/EEG Responses to Dynamic Facial Expressions. NeuroImage, 263, Article 119631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119631
[8]
Kim, J., Schultz, J., Rohe, T., Wallraven, C., Lee, S. and Bülthoff, H.H. (2015) Abstract Representations of Associated Emotions in the Human Brain. The Journal of Neuroscience, 35, 5655-5663. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.4059-14.2015
[9]
Abdollahi, H., Mahoor, M.H., Zandie, R., Siewierski, J. and Qualls, S.H. (2023) Artificial Emotional Intelligence in Socially Assistive Robots for Older Adults: A Pilot Study. IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, 14, 2020-2032. https://doi.org/10.1109/taffc.2022.3143803
[10]
Abdel-Hamid, L. (2023) An Efficient Machine Learning-Based Emotional Valence Recognition Approach towards Wearable EEG. Sensors, 23, Article 1255. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031255
[11]
Andreu-Perez, A.R., Kiani, M., Andreu-Perez, J., Reddy, P., Andreu-Abela, J., Pinto, M., et al. (2021) Single-Trial Recognition of Video Gamer’s Expertise from Brain Haemodynamic and Facial Emotion Responses. Brain Sciences, 11, Article 106. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11010106
[12]
Gao, X., Weng, L., Zhou, Y. and Yu, H. (2017) The Influence of Empathy and Morality of Violent Video Game Characters on Gamers’ Aggression. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 1863. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01863
[13]
Ekman, P. (1976) Pictures of Facial Affect. Consulting Psychologists Press.
[14]
Ekman, P. (1992) An Argument for Basic Emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 6, 169-200. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699939208411068
[15]
Aviezer, H., Ensenberg, N. and Hassin, R.R. (2017) The Inherently Contextualized Nature of Facial Emotion Perception. Current Opinion in Psychology, 17, 47-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.06.006
[16]
Abo Foul, Y., Eitan, R., Mortillaro, M. and Aviezer, H. (2021) Perceiving Dynamic Emotions Expressed Simultaneously in the Face and Body Minimizes Perceptual Differences between Young and Older Adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 77, 84-93. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbab064
[17]
Reschke, P.J. and Walle, E.A. (2021) The Unique and Interactive Effects of Faces, Postures, and Scenes on Emotion Categorization. Affective Science, 2, 468-483. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-021-00061-x
[18]
Eiland, R. and Richardson, D. (1976) The Influence of Race, Sex and Age on Judgments of Emotion Portrayed in Photographs. Communication Monographs, 43, 167-175. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637757609375929
[19]
Wingenbach, T.S.H., Ashwin, C. and Brosnan, M. (2018) Sex Differences in Facial Emotion Recognition across Varying Expression Intensity Levels from Videos. PLOS ONE, 13, e0190634. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190634
[20]
Forni-Santos, L. and Osório, F.L. (2015) Influence of Gender in the Recognition of Basic Facial Expressions: A Critical Literature Review. World Journal of Psychiatry, 5, 342-351. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v5.i3.342
[21]
Young, A.W., Rowland, D., Calder, A.J., Etcoff, N.L., Seth, A. and Perrett, D.I. (1997) Facial Expression Megamix: Tests of Dimensional and Category Accounts of Emotion Recognition. Cognition, 63, 271-313. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0010-0277(97)00003-6
[22]
Cheal, J.L. and Rutherford, M.D. (2011) Categorical Perception of Emotional Facial Expressions in Preschoolers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 110, 434-443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2011.03.007
[23]
Shibui, S., Yamada, H., Sato, T. and Shigemasu, K. (2001) The Relationship between the Categorical Perception of Facial Expressions and Semantic Distances. The Japanese journal of psychology, 72, 219-226. https://doi.org/10.4992/jjpsy.72.219
[24]
Campanella, S., Quinet, P., Bruyer, R., Crommelinck, M. and Guerit, J.-M. (2002) Categorical Perception of Happiness and Fear Facial Expressions: An ERP Study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 210-227. https://doi.org/10.1162/089892902317236858
[25]
Peper, M. and Irle, E. (1997) Categorical and Dimensional Decoding of Emotional Intonations in Patients with Focal Brain Lesions. Brain and Language, 58, 233-264. https://doi.org/10.1006/brln.1997.1789
[26]
Kainen, P., Kůrková, V. and Vogt, A. (2000) Best Approximation by Heaviside Perceptron Networks. Neural Networks, 13, 695-697. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0893-6080(00)00056-3
[27]
Wang, J. (2010) Analysis and Design of a $k$-Winners-Take-All Model with a Single State Variable and the Heaviside Step Activation Function. IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 21, 1496-1506. https://doi.org/10.1109/tnn.2010.2052631
[28]
Su, M., Miften, M., Whiddon, C., Sun, X., Light, K. and Marks, L. (2005) An Artificial Neural Network for Predicting the Incidence of Radiation Pneumonitis. Medical Physics, 32, 318-325. https://doi.org/10.1118/1.1835611
[29]
Jie, S., Li, W., WeiSong, Z., YaQin, Z. and Malekian, R. (2014) Numerical Analysis of Modeling Based on Improved Elman Neural Network. The Scientific World Journal, 2014, Article 271593. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/271593
[30]
Newman, J.P., Curtin, J.J., Bertsch, J.D. and Baskin-Sommers, A.R. (2010) Attention Moderates the Fearlessness of Psychopathic Offenders. Biological Psychiatry, 67, 66-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.07.035
[31]
Harris, R.J., Young, W. and Andrews, T.J. (2012) Morphing between Expressions Dissociates Continuous from Categorical Representations of Facial Expression in the Human Brain. Department of Psychology and York Neuroimaging Centre, University of York, York YO10 5DD.
[32]
Sprengelmeyer, R., Young, A.W., Calder, A.J., Karnat, A., Lange, H., Hömberg, V., et al. (1996) Loss of Disgust: Perception of Faces and Emotions in Huntington’s Disease. Brain, 119, 1647-1665. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/119.5.1647
[33]
Granato, P., Vinekar, S., Godefroy, O., Gansberghe, J.V. and Bruyer, R. (2020) The Ability to Visually Recognize Facial Emotions during the Initial Stages of Alzheimer’s. Open Journal of Psychiatry, 10, 187-204. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojpsych.2020.104016
[34]
Harmer, C.J., Bhagwagar, Z., Perrett, D.I., Völlm, B.A., Cowen, P.J. and Goodwin, G.M. (2003) Acute SSRI Administration Affects the Processing of Social Cues in Healthy Volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology, 28, 148-152. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1300004
[35]
Nathan, P.J., Kemp, A.H. and Harrison, B.J. (2003) Antidepressants and Emotional Processing. Neuropsychopharmacology, 28, 1383. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1300196
[36]
Jiskoot, L.C., Poos, J.M., Vollebergh, M.E., Franzen, S., van Hemmen, J., Papma, J.M., et al. (2020) Emotion Recognition of Morphed Facial Expressions in Presymptomatic and Symptomatic Frontotemporal Dementia, and Alzheimer’s Dementia. Journal of Neurology, 268, 102-113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-020-10096-y
[37]
Chiu, I., Piguet, O., Diehl-Schmid, J., Riedl, L., Beck, J., Leyhe, T., et al. (2018) Facial Emotion Recognition Performance Differentiates between Behavioral Variant Frontotemporal Dementia and Major Depressive Disorder. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 79, 16m11342. https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.16m11342
[38]
Granato, P., Shreekumar, V., Godefroy, O., Gansberghe, J.V. and Bruyer, R. (2018) Measurement of the Ability to Recognize Facial Emotions over the Adult Lifetime in a Supra-Normal Sample. Clinical Psychiatry, 4, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.21767/2471-9854.100055
[39]
Gery, I., Miljkovitch, R., Berthoz, S. and Soussignan, R. (2009) Empathy and Recognition of Facial Expressions of Emotion in Sex Offenders, Non-Sex Offenders and Normal Controls. Psychiatry Research, 165, 252-262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2007.11.006
[40]
Carr, M.B. and Lutjemeier, J.A. (2005) The Relation of Facial Affect Recognition and Empathy to Delinquency in Youth Offenders. Adolescence, 40, 601-619.
[41]
Fujimura, T., Matsuda, Y., Katahira, K., Okada, M. and Okanoya, K. (2012) Categorical and Dimensional Perceptions in Decoding Emotional Facial Expressions. Cognition & Emotion, 26, 587-601. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2011.595391
[42]
Matsuda, Y., Fujimura, T., Katahira, K., Okada, M., Ueno, K., Cheng, K., et al. (2013) The Implicit Processing of Categorical and Dimensional Strategies: An Fmri Study of Facial Emotion Perception. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, Article 551. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00551
[43]
Folstein, M.F., Folstein, S.E. and McHugh, P.R. (1975) “Mini-Mental State”: A Practical Method for Grading the Cognitive State of Patients for the Clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12, 189-198. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6
[44]
Albein-Urios, N., Martinez-Gonzalez, J.M., Lozano-Rojas, O. and Verdejo-Garcia, A. (2019) Dysfunctional Personality Beliefs Linked to Emotion Recognition Deficits in Individuals with Cocaine Addiction and Personality Disorders. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, Article 431. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00431
[45]
Bagcioglu, E., Isikli, H., Demirel, H., Sahin, E., Kandemir, E., Dursun, P., et al. (2014) Facial Emotion Recognition in Male Antisocial Personality Disorders with or without Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 55, 1152-1156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.02.011
[46]
Calder, A.J., Keane, J., Manes, F., Antoun, N. and Young, A.W. (2000) Impaired Recognition and Experience of Disgust Following Brain Injury. Nature Neuroscience, 3, 1077-1078. https://doi.org/10.1038/80586
[47]
Gray, J. (1997) Impaired Recognition of Disgust in Huntington’s Disease Gene Carriers. Brain, 120, 2029-2038. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/120.11.2029
[48]
Ekman, P. (1994) Strong Evidence for Universals in Facial Expressions: A Reply to Russell’s Mistaken Critique. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 268-287. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.115.2.268
[49]
Ekman, P., Sorenson, E.R. and Friesen, W.V. (1969) Pan-Cultural Elements in Facial Displays of Emotion. Science, 164, 86-88. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.164.3875.86
[50]
Ekman, P. and Friesen, W.V. (1971) Constants across Cultures in the Face and Emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17, 124-129. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030377
[51]
Izard, C.E. (1994) Innate and Universal Facial Expressions: Evidence from Developmental and Cross-Cultural Research. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 288-299. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.288
[52]
Russell, J.A. (1994) Is There Universal Recognition of Emotion from Facial Expression? A Review of the Cross-Cultural Studies. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 102-141. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.102
[53]
Russell, J.A. (1995) Facial Expressions of Emotion: What Lies Beyond Minimal Universality? Psychological Bulletin, 118, 379-391. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.118.3.379
[54]
El Zein, M., Wyart, V. and Grèzes, J. (2018) Pervasive Influence of Idiosyncratic Associative Biases during Facial Emotion Recognition. Scientific Reports, 8, Article No. 8804. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-27102-z
[55]
Vogel, M., Monesson, A. and Scott, L.S. (2012) Building Biases in Infancy: The Influence of Race on Face and Voice Emotion Matching. Developmental Science, 15, 359-372. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2012.01138.x
[56]
Stajduhar, A., Ganel, T., Avidan, G., Rosenbaum, R.S. and Freud, E. (2022) Face Masks Disrupt Holistic Processing and Face Perception in School-Age Children. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 7, Article No. 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-022-00360-2
[57]
Meléndez, J.C., Satorres, E., Reyes-Olmedo, M., Delhom, I., Real, E. and Lora, Y. (2020) Emotion Recognition Changes in a Confinement Situation due to COVID-19. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 72, Article 101518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101518
[58]
Montague, D.P.F. and Walker-Andrews, A.S. (2002) Mothers, Fathers, and Infants: The Role of Person Familiarity and Parental Involvement in Infants’ Perception of Emotion Expressions. Child Development, 73, 1339-1352. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00475
[59]
Grossmann, T. (2010) The Development of Emotion Perception in Face and Voice during Infancy. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 28, 219-236. https://doi.org/10.3233/rnn-2010-0499
[60]
Gori, M., Schiatti, L. and Amadeo, M.B. (2021) Masking Emotions: Face Masks Impair How We Read Emotions. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 669432. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.669432
[61]
Carbon, C. (2020) Wearing Face Masks Strongly Confuses Counterparts in Reading Emotions. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 566886. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566886
[62]
Camras, L.A. and Shutter, J.M. (2010) Emotional Facial Expressions in Infancy. Emotion Review, 2, 120-129. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073909352529
[63]
Ekman, P., Friesen, W., Hagar, J.C. (1978) Facial Action Coding System (FACS) [Database Record]. APA PsycTests. https://doi.org/10.1037/t27734-000
[64]
Biehl, M., Matsumoto, D., Ekman, P., Hearn, V., Heider, K., Kudoh, T., et al. (1997) Matsumoto and Ekman’s Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expressions of Emotion (JACFEE): Reliability Data and Cross-National Differences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 21, 3-21. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1024902500935
[65]
Matsumoto, D. (1990) Cultural Similarities and Differences in Display Rules. Motivation and Emotion, 14, 195-214. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00995569
[66]
Moriguchi, Y., Ohnishi, T., Kawachi, T., Mori, T., Hirakata, M., Yamada, M., et al. (2005) Specific Brain Activation in Japanese and Caucasian People to Fearful Faces. NeuroReport, 16, 133-136. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001756-200502080-00012
[67]
Matsumoto, D., Consolacion, T., Yamada, H., Suzuki, R., Franklin, B., Paul, S., et al. (2002) American-Japanese Cultural Differences in Judgements of Emotional Expressions of Different Intensities. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 721-747. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000608
[68]
Matsumoto, D. and Ekman, P. (1989) American-Japanese Cultural Differences in Intensity Ratings of Facial Expressions of Emotion. Motivation and Emotion, 13, 143-157. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00992959
[69]
Matsumoto, D. (1992) American-Japanese Cultural Differences in the Recognition of Universal Facial Expressions. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 23, 72-84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022192231005
[70]
Yrizarry, N., Matsumoto, D. and Wilson-Cohn, C. (1998) American-Japanese Differences in Multiscalar Intensity Ratings of Universal Facial Expressions of Emotion. Motivation and Emotion, 22, 315-327. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1021304407227
[71]
Limbrecht, K., Rukavina, S., Scheck, A., Walter, S., Hoffmann, H. and Traue, H.C. (2012) The Influence of Naturalness, Attractiveness and Intensity on Facial Emotion Recognition. Journal of Psychology Research, 2, 166-176. https://doi.org/10.17265/2159-5542/2012.03.004
[72]
Bonassi, A., Ghilardi, T., Gabrieli, G., Truzzi, A., Doi, H., Borelli, J.L., et al. (2021) The Recognition of Cross-Cultural Emotional Faces Is Affected by Intensity and Ethnicity in a Japanese Sample. Behavioral Sciences, 11, Article 59. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11050059
[73]
Connolly, H.L., Lefevre, C.E., Young, A.W. and Lewis, G.J. (2020) Emotion Recognition Ability: Evidence for a Supramodal Factor and Its Links to Social Cognition. Cognition, 197, Article 104166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104166
[74]
Poncet, F., Baudouin, J., Dzhelyova, M.P., Rossion, B. and Leleu, A. (2019) Rapid and Automatic Discrimination between Facial Expressions in the Human Brain. Neuropsychologia, 129, 47-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.03.006
[75]
Vieira, J.B., Tavares, T.P., Marsh, A.A. and Mitchell, D.G.V. (2016) Emotion and Personal Space: Neural Correlates of Approach-Avoidance Tendencies to Different Facial Expressions as a Function of Coldhearted Psychopathic Traits. Human Brain Mapping, 38, 1492-1506. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.23467
[76]
Luo, Q. and Dzhelyova, M. (2020) Consistent Behavioral and Electrophysiological Evidence for Rapid Perceptual Discrimination among the Six Human Basic Facial Expressions. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 20, 928-948. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-020-00811-7
[77]
Dima, D., Stephan, K.E., Roiser, J.P., Friston, K.J. and Frangou, S. (2011) Effective Connectivity during Processing of Facial Affect: Evidence for Multiple Parallel Pathways. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 14378-14385. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.2400-11.2011
[78]
Lin, H., Müller-Bardorff, M., Gathmann, B., Brieke, J., Mothes-Lasch, M., Bruchmann, M., et al. (2020) Stimulus Arousal Drives Amygdalar Responses to Emotional Expressions across Sensory Modalities. Scientific Reports, 10, Article No. 1898. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-58839-1
[79]
Zald, D.H. (2003) The Human Amygdala and the Emotional Evaluation of Sensory Stimuli. Brain Research Reviews, 41, 88-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-0173(02)00248-5
[80]
Kugel, H., Eichmann, M., Dannlowski, U., Ohrmann, P., Bauer, J., Arolt, V., et al. (2008) Alexithymic Features and Automatic Amygdala Reactivity to Facial Emotion. Neuroscience Letters, 435, 40-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2008.02.005
[81]
Sergerie, K., Chochol, C. and Armony, J.L. (2008) The Role of the Amygdala in Emotional Processing: A Quantitative Meta-Analysis of Functional Neuroimaging Studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 32, 811-830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.12.002
[82]
Weniger, G. (2002) Impaired Facial Affect Recognition and Emotional Changes in Subjects with Transmodal Cortical Lesions. Cerebral Cortex, 12, 258-268. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/12.3.258
[83]
Phung, S.L. and Bouzerdoum, A. (2007) A Pyramidal Neural Network for Visual Pattern Recognition. IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 18, 329-343. https://doi.org/10.1109/tnn.2006.884677
[84]
Schmid, P.C. and Schmid Mast, M. (2010) Mood Effects on Emotion Recognition. Motivation and Emotion, 34, 288-292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-010-9170-0
[85]
Bouhuys, A.L., Geerts, E. and Gordijn, M.C.M. (1999) Depressed Patients’ Perceptions of Facial Emotions in Depressed and Remitted States Are Associated with Relapse. The Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 187, 595-602. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-199910000-00002
[86]
Schmid, P.C., Schmid Mast, M., Bombari, D., Mast, F.W. and Lobmaier, J.S. (2011) How Mood States Affect Information Processing during Facial Emotion Recognition: An Eye Tracking Study. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 70, 223-231. https://doi.org/10.1024/1421-0185/a000060
[87]
Pandey, R. and Mandal, M.K. (1997) Processing of Facial Expressions of Emotion and Alexithymia. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36, 631-633. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1997.tb01269.x
[88]
May, K.E., Martino, M.A. and Kana, R.K. (2022) Emotional Cognition, Theory of Mind, and Face Recognition in Individuals with Autism and PDDs. In: Matson, J.L. and Sturmey, P., Eds., Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorder: Assessment, Diagnosis, and Treatment, Springer International Publishing, 113-133. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88538-0_5
[89]
Trémeau, F. (2006) A Review of Emotion Deficits in Schizophrenia. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 8, 59-70. https://doi.org/10.31887/dcns.2006.8.1/ftremeau
[90]
Furlong, L.S., Rossell, S.L., Karantonis, J.A., Cropley, V.L., Hughes, M. and Van Rheenen, T.E. (2021) Characterization of Facial Emotion Recognition in Bipolar Disorder: Focus on Emotion Mislabelling and Neutral Expressions. Journal of Neuropsychology, 16, 353-372. https://doi.org/10.1111/jnp.12267
[91]
Daros, A.R., Zakzanis, K.K. and Ruocco, A.C. (2012) Facial Emotion Recognition in Borderline Personality Disorder. Psychological Medicine, 43, 1953-1963. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291712002607
[92]
Chaby, L. and Narme, P. (2009) Processing Facial Identity and Emotional Expression in Normal Aging and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Psychologie & NeuroPsychiatrie du vieillissement, 7, 31-42. https://doi.org/10.1684/pnv.2008.0154
[93]
Ruffman, T., Henry, J.D., Livingstone, V. and Phillips, L.H. (2008) A Meta-Analytic Review of Emotion Recognition and Aging: Implications for Neuropsychological Models of Aging. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 32, 863-881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.01.001
[94]
Sullivan, S. and Ruffman, T. (2004) Emotion Recognition Deficits in the Elderly. International Journal of Neuroscience, 114, 403-432. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207450490270901
[95]
Granato, P. and Bruyer, R. (2002) Measurement of the Perception of Facially Expressed Emotions by a Computerized Device: Method of Analysis and Research for the Integration of Emotions (MARIE). European Psychiatry, 17, 339-348. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0924-9338(02)00684-3
[96]
Granato, P., Vinekar, S., Godefroy, O., Van Gansberghe, J.P. and Bruyer, R. (2012) Evidence of Impaired Facial Emotion Recognition in Mild Alzheimer’s Disease: A Mathematical Approach and Application. Open Journal of Psychiatry, 2, 171-186. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojpsych.2012.23023
[97]
Granato, P., Vinekar, S., Godefroy, O., Van Gansberghe, J.P. and Bruyer, R. (2014) A Study of Visual Recognition of Facial Emotional Expressions in a Normal Aging Population in the Absence of Cognitive Disorders. Open Journal of Psychiatry, 4, 251-260. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojpsych.2014.43031
[98]
Granato, P. and Bruyer, R. (1996) Objective Study of the Perception of Smile and Sadness by the MARIE Emotion Integration Research Analysis Method. Annales Médico-Psychologiques, 154, 1-9.
[99]
Bruyer, R. and Granato, P. (1999) Categorical Effects in the Perception of Facial Expressions; MARIE—A Simple and Discriminating Clinical Tool. Revue Europeene de Psychologie Appliquee, 49, 3-10.
