In 2013, the percentage of children ranging from 5 to 17 years who reported being diagnosed with autism surged to 1.2% from 0.1% in 1997 [1]. Alongside this increase in the incidence of autism in children, there were findings of a 21% increase in children who displayed behavioral and conduct problems from 2019 to 2020 [2]. Early detection of neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders in children is critical for timely intervention and improved long-term outcomes. With early intervention, there is better aptitude to support healthy development and give proper treatment to attain a better quality of life. This paper explores studies aimed at enhancing the early detection of these disorders through the use of biomarkers with the aim of creating a bridge between the worlds of research and clinical practice. The disorders in this paper specifically discussed are Major Depressive Disorder, Bipolar Disorder, and Autism Spectrum Disorder. With this bridge, we can foster collaborations and encourage further advancement in the field of early detection and intervention.
References
[1]
America’s Children and the Environment (ACE) (2023) Health—Neurodevelop-mental Disorders. https://www.epa.gov/americaschildrenenvironment/health-neurodevelopmental-disorders#:~:text=The%20percentage%20of%20children%20ages,increasing%20trend%20was%20statistically%20significant
[2]
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2022) New HHS Study in JAMA Pediatrics Shows Significant Increases in Children Diagnosed with Mental Health Conditions from 2016 to 2020. https://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2022/03/14/new-hhs-study-jama-pediatrics-shows-significant-increases-children-diagnosed-mental-health-conditions-2016-2020.html
[3]
Benisek, A. (2023) What Are Biomarkers? https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/biomarkers-overview
[4]
McBride, B. Examples of Biomarkers and Biomarker Data Analysis. https://www.fiosgenomics.com/examples-of-biomarkers-and-biomarker-data-analysis/#:~:text=For%20example%2C%20blood%20pressure%2C%20body,proteins%20within%20bone%2C%20as%20biomarkers
[5]
Pozzi, L. 7 Types of Biomarkers. https://www.atlasantibodies.com/knowledge-hub/blog/7-types-of-biomarkers/?language=en#:~:text=Diagnostic%20Biomarkers&text=Diagnostic%20biomarkers%20can%20also%20provide,and%20monitoring)%20of%20prostate%20cancer
[6]
Carducci, B.J. and Nave, C.S. (2020) The Wiley Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences: Models and Theories. Wiley.
[7]
Blain, T. (2022) What Are Neurodevelopmental Disorders? https://www.verywellmind.com/neurodevelopmental-disorders-definition-symptoms-traits-causes-treatment-5221231
[8]
Nasrullah, S. and Jalali, A. (2022) Detection of Types of Mental Illness through the Social Network Using Ensembled Deep Learning Model. Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience, 2022, Article 9404242. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9404242
[9]
Zhang, H., Tang, X., Feng, C., Gao, Y., Hong, Q., Zhang, J., et al. (2023) The Use of Data Independent Acquisition Based Proteomic Analysis and Machine Learning to Reveal Potential Biomarkers for Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Proteomics, 278, Article 104872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jprot.2023.104872
[10]
Medicine Plus. SERPINC1 Gene. https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/serpinc1/#:~:text=The%20SERPINC1%20gene%20provides%20instructions,the%20activity%20of%20certain%20proteins
[11]
Medicine Plus. PLG Gene. https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/plg/#:~:text=The%20PLG%20gene%20provides%20instructions,down%20another%20protein%20called%20fibrin
Yerys, B.E. and Pennington, B.F. (2011) How Do We Establish a Biological Marker for a Behaviorally Defined Disorder? Autism as a Test Case. Autism Research, 4, 239-241. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.204
[14]
Hayes, J.F., Khandaker, G.M., Anderson, J., Mackay, D., Zammit, S., Lewis, G., et al. (2016) Childhood Interleukin-6, C-Reactive Protein and Atopic Disorders as Risk Factors for Hypomanic Symptoms in Young Adulthood: A Longitudinal Birth Cohort Study. Psychological Medicine, 47, 23-33. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291716001574
[15]
Khandaker, G.M., Pearson, R.M., Zammit, S., Lewis, G. and Jones, P.B. (2014) Association of Serum Interleukin 6 and C-Reactive Protein in Childhood with Depression and Psychosis in Young Adult Life. JAMA Psychiatry, 71, 1121-1128. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.1332
[16]
Dowlati, Y., Herrmann, N., Swardfager, W., Liu, H., Sham, L., Reim, E.K., et al. (2010) A Meta-Analysis of Cytokines in Major Depression. Biological Psychiatry, 67, 446-457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.09.033
[17]
Haapakoski, R., Mathieu, J., Ebmeier, K.P., Alenius, H. and Kivimäki, M. (2015) Cumulative Meta-Analysis of Interleukins 6 and 1β, Tumour Necrosis Factor α and C-Reactive Protein in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 49, 206-215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2015.06.001
[18]
Elgellaie, A., Thomas, S.J., Kaelle, J., Bartschi, J. and Larkin, T. (2023) Pro-Inflam-matory Cytokines IL-1α, IL-6 and TNF-α in Major Depressive Disorder: Sex-Specific Associations with Psychological Symptoms. European Journal of Neuroscience, 57, 1913-1928. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.15992
[19]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Data and Statistics on Children’s Mental Health. https://www.cdc.gov/childrensmentalhealth/data.html
[20]
National Institute of Mental Health. Suicide. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/suicide
