The debate over the benefits and cons of specialization is one of the most interesting ongoing subjects with compelling arguments on both sides. The current study’s scope is to take a step ahead toward analyzing specialization as a dynamic variable. Moreover, we aim at introducing and evaluating a means to measure the degree of specialization a person manifests in their daily life. By establishing a method of quantifying it, we purpose in future research on potential interrelation between specialization and various personality aspects (such as introversion and extroversion, proclivity towards cooperation, adjusting in changes, etc.). In view of that, we introduced a measurement tool, the Specialization Questionnaire (S.Q.), which we administered in a population of 272. The results indicated that the participants consider job specialization to be of significant importance for work advancement, but not necessarily as a fundamental criterion for forming social interactions. Additionally, it has been partially showed that the higher the specialization tendency, the higher the seeking for specialized stimuli in free time. There is more research required to that direction, in order to establish a theoretical model with a high predicting degree.
References
[1]
Achrol, R. S. (1997). Changes in the Theory of Interorganizational Relations in Marketing: Toward a Network Paradigm. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 25, 56-71. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02894509
[2]
Adams, M. (1997). The Determinants of Actuarial Costs in the New Zealand Life Insurance Industry. Applied Financial Economics, 7, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1080/096031097333790
[3]
Adkins, D. C. (1954). The Simple Structure of the American Psychological Association. American Psychologist, 9, 175-180. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0059648
[4]
Al-Samarraie, H., Eldenfria, A., & Dawoud, H. (2017). The Impact of Personality Traits on Users’ Information-Seeking Behavior. Information Processing & Management, 53, 237-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2016.08.004
[5]
Anastasi, A. (1967). Psychology, Psychologists, and Psychological Testing. American Psychologist, 22, 297-306. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0024521
[6]
Anderson, J.C., Håkansson, H., & Johanson, J. (1994). Dyadic Business Relationships within a Business Network Context. Journal of Marketing, 58, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224299405800401
[7]
Baas, M. L. (1950). Kuder Interest Patterns of Psychologists. Journal of Applied Psychology, 34, 115-117. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0060792
[8]
Bacolod, M., Blum, B. S., & Strange, W. C. (2009). Urban Interactions: Soft Skills versus Specialization. Journal of Economic Geography, 9, 227-262. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbn057
[9]
Baker, J., & Cox R. D. (2014). The History and Importance of Specialization in Professional Psychology. In N. J. Kaslow, & W. B. Johnson (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Education and Training in Professional Psychology (pp. 120-132). Oxford Handbooks Online.
[10]
Bartkus, J. R., & Kabir Hassan, M. (2009). Specialization versus Diversification in Venture Capital Investing. Journal of Financial Regulation and Compliance, 17, 134-145. https://doi.org/10.1108/13581980910952577
[11]
Batchimeg, S. (2022). Endogenous Specialization and Dealer Networks. Princeton University.
[12]
Baumann, F., Friehe, T., & Wedow, M. (2010). General Ability and Specialization: Evidence from Penalty Kicks in Soccer. Journal of Sports Economics, 12, 81-105. https://doi.org/10.1177/1527002510371194
[13]
Begon, Μ., Howarth, R. W., & Townsend, C. R. (2014). Essentials of Ecology (4th ed.). Wiley.
[14]
Black, S. E., Lynch, L. M., & Krivelyova, A. (2003). How Workers Fare When Employers Innovate. Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, 43, 44-66. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0019-8676.2004.00318.x
[15]
Bloch, B. (1995). Specialization and Its Critical Role in Business. Management Decision, 33, 51-56. https://doi.org/10.1108/00251749510087650
[16]
Bower, G. H. (1993). The Fragmentation of Psychology? American Psychologist, 48, 905-907. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.48.8.905
[17]
Burton, A. C. (1975) Variety—The Spice of Science as Well as of Life: The Disadvantages of Specialization. Annual Review of Physiology, 37, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ph.37.030175.000245
[18]
Carter, A. J., English, S., & Clutton-Brock, T. H. (2014). Cooperative Personalities and Social Niche Specialization in Female Meerkats. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 27, 815-825. https://doi.org/10.1111/jeb.12358
[19]
Cascio, W. F. (1974) Functional Specialization, Culture, and Preference for Participative Management. Personnel Psychology, 27, 593-603. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1974.tb01179.x
[20]
Chesbrough, H., & Teece, D. (1996). When Is Virtual Virtuous: Organizing for Innovation. Harvard Business Review, 80, 65-73.
[21]
Chintiroglou, C., & Staikou, A. (2020). Ηθολογία Ζώων. University Studio Press.
[22]
Churbuck, D. & Young, J. S. (1992). The Virtual Workplace. Forbes, 150, 184-190.
[23]
Damian, R. I., Su, R., Shanahan, M., Trautwein, U., & Roberts, B. W. (2015) Can Personality Traits and Intelligence Compensate for Background Disadvantage? Predicting Status Attainment in Adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 473-489. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000024
[24]
Davidow, W. H., & Malone, M. S. (1992). The Virtual Corporation. Harper Business.
[25]
De Vries, R.E., de Vries, A., & Feij, J. A. (2009). Sensation Seeking, Risk-Taking, and the HEXACO Model of Personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 536-540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.05.029
[26]
Drum, D. J., & Blom, B. E. (2001). The Dynamics of Specialization in Professional Psychology. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32, 513-521. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.32.5.513
[27]
Duranton, G., & Puga, D. (2005). From Sectoral to Functional Urban Specialisation. Journal of Urban Economics, 57, 343-370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2004.12.002
[28]
Easthaugh, S. R. (2001). Hospital Costs and Specialization: Benefits of Trimming Product Lines. Health Care Finance, 28, 61-71.
[29]
Eysenck, H. J. (1992). Four Ways Five Factors Are Not Basic. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 667-673. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(92)90237-j
[30]
Farely, D. E., & Hogan, C. (1990). Case-Mix Specialization in the Market for Hospital Services. Health Services Research, 25, 757-783.
[31]
Feldman, M. P., & Audretsch, D. B. (1999). Innovation in Cities: Science-Based diversity, Specialization and Localized Competition. European Economic Review, 43, 409-429. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0014-2921(98)00047-6
[32]
Fischer, R., & Boer, D. (2014). Motivational Basis of Personality Traits: A Meta-Analysis of Value-Personality Correlations. Journal of Personality, 83, 491-510. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12125
[33]
Folinas, D., & Altharwa, M. (2012). Factors Influencing Specialization vs. Diversification Decision Making. International Journal of Strategic Decision Sciences, 3, 27-50. https://doi.org/10.4018/jsds.2012100102
[34]
Fritsch, M., & Slavtchev, V. (2009). How Does Industry Specialization Affect the Efficiency of Regional Innovation Systems? The Annals of Regional Science, 45, 87-108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00168-009-0292-9
[35]
Glaeser, E. L., Kallal, H. D., Scheinkman, J. A., & Shleifer, A. (1992). Growth in Cities. Journal of Political Economy, 100, 1126-1152. https://doi.org/10.1086/261856
[36]
Gompers, P., Kovner, A., & Lerner, J. (2009). Specialization and Success: Evidence from Venture Capital. Journal of Economics & Management Strategy, 18, 817-844. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9134.2009.00230.x
[37]
Greek Industries Association (ΣΕΒ) (2017). The Middle and Small Businesses in Greece. EY.
[38]
Green Sheet Online (2007). Diversification versus Specialization: Which Is Better? http://www.greensheet.com/gsonline_pdfs/071002.pdf
[39]
Grossman, G. M., & Helpman, E. (1994). Endogenous Innovation in the Theory of Growth. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 8, 23-44. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.8.1.23
[40]
Guilera, T., Batalla, I., Forné, C., & Soler-González, J. (2019). Empathy and Big Five Personality Model in Medical Students and Its Relationship to Gender and Specialty Preference: A Cross-Sectional Study. BMC Medical Education, 19, Article No. 57. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-019-1485-2
[41]
Hagel III, J., & Brown, J. S. (2005). The Only Sustainable Edge: Why Business Strategy Depends on Productive Friction and Dynamic Specialization. Harvard Business School Press.
[42]
Hesse, H. (2008). Export Diversification and Economic Growth. Commission on Growth and Development, Working Paper No. 21. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/e8eb01ea-1588-5e80-83cd-a0b9c51c685f/content
[43]
Hjältén, J., & Hallgren, P. (2002). The Resistance of Hybrid Willows to Specialist and Generalist Herbivores and Pathogens: The Potential Role of Secondary Chemistry and Parent Host Plant Status. In M. R. Wagner, K. M. Clancy, F. Lieutier, & T. D. Paine (Ed.), Mechanisms and Deployment of Resistance in Trees to Insects (pp. 153-168). Kluwer Academic Publishers.
[44]
Howell, M. A., & Newman, S. H. (1963) What Factors Contribute to Specialization within Psychology?Personnel Psychology, 16, 359-371. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1963.tb01282.x
[45]
Hudson, N. W., & Fraley, R. C. (2015). Volitional Personality Trait Change: Can People Choose to Change Their Personality Traits? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 490-507. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000021
[46]
Imbs, J., & Wacziarg, R. (2003). Stages of Diversification. American Economic Review, 93, 63-86. https://doi.org/10.1257/000282803321455160
[47]
Jacobs, J. (1969). The Economy of Cities. Random House.
[48]
Jones, C., Hesterly, W. S., & Borgatti, S. P. (1997). A General Theory of Network Governance: Exchange Conditions and Social Mechanisms. The Academy of Management Review, 22, 911-945. https://doi.org/10.2307/259249
[49]
Kalra, A., & Li, S. (2008). Signaling Quality through Specialization. Marketing Science, 27, 168-184. https://doi.org/10.1287/mksc.1070.0300
[50]
Kaslow, N. J., Graves, C. C., & Smith, C. O. (2011). Specialization in Psychology and Health Care Reform. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 19, 12-21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10880-011-9273-0
[51]
Kaulich, F. (2012). Diversification vs. Specialization as Alternative Strategies for Economic Development: Can We Settle a Debate by Looking at the Empirical Evidence? United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO).
[52]
Kaulich, F. (2015). Diversification vs. Specialization as Alternative Strategies for Economic Development: Can We Settle a Debate by Looking at the Empirical Evidence? Development Policy, Statistics and Research Branch Working Paper, 3/12. (UNIDO).
[53]
Kelly, E. L., & Goldberg, L. R. (1959). Correlates of Later Performance and Specialization in Psychology: A Follow-Up Study of the Trainees Assessed in the VA Selection Research Project. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 73, 1-32. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0093748
[54]
Kernberg, O. F. (2016). What Is Personality? Journal of Personality Disorders, 30, 145-156. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2106.30.2.145
[55]
Krause, M. A. (2015). Evolutionary Perspectives on Learning: Conceptual and Methodological Issues in the Study of Adaptive Specializations. Animal Cognition, 18, 807-820. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-015-0854-4
[56]
Kriedt, P. H. (1949). Vocational Interests of Psychologists. Journal of Applied Psychology, 33, 482-488. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0057752
[57]
Lawless, K. A., & Kulikowich, J. M. (2006). Domain Knowledge and Individual Interest: The Effects of Academic Level and Specialization in Statistics and Psychology. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 31, 30-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2005.01.002
[58]
Lei, D., Hitt, M. A., & Goldhar, J. D. (1996). Advanced Manufacturing Technology: Organizational Design and Strategic Flexibility. Organization Studies, 17, 501-523. https://doi.org/10.1177/017084069601700307
[59]
Lioukas, S. (2010). ΟιΕλληνικές επιχειρήσειςμετάτηνκρίση: Προοπτικές και στρατηγικές για διεθνή ανταγωνιστικότητα. Τράπεζα τηςΕλλάδος. Bank of Greece. https://www.bankofgreece.gr/RelatedDocuments/20-5_lioukas.pdf
[60]
Little, R. B. (1972). Psychological Man as Scientist, Humanist and Specialist. Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 6, 95-118. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1974-01099-001
[61]
Markides, C. C., & Williamson, P. J. (1996). Corporate Diversification and Organizational Structure: A Resource-Based View. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 340-367. https://doi.org/10.2307/256783
[62]
Marsico, M. C., De Mahler, B., Chomnalez, M., Giacomo, A. G. D., & Reboreda, J. C. (2010). Host Use by Generalist and Specialist Brood-Parasitic Cowbirds at Population and Individual Levels. Ιn R. Macedo (Ed.), Behavioral Ecology of Tropical Animals (pp. 83-121). Academic Press.
[63]
Matarazzo, J. D. (1987). There Is Only One Psychology, No Specialties, but Many Applications. American Psychologist, 42, 893-903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.42.10.893
[64]
Mayer, E. (2001). What Evolution Is. Basic Books.
[65]
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (2004). A Contemplated Revision of the NEO Five-Factor Inventory. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 587-596. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(03)00118-1
[66]
McCrae, R. R., & Terracciano, A. (2005). Personality Profiles of Cultures: Aggregate Personality Traits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 407-425. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.407
[67]
Miles, R. E., & Snow, C. C. (1986). Organizations: New Concepts for New Forms. California Management Review, 28, 62-73. https://doi.org/10.2307/41165202
[68]
Miles, R. E., & Snow, C. C. (1992). Causes of Failures in Network Organizations. California Management Review, 34, 53-72. https://doi.org/10.2307/41166703
[69]
Millimet, D. L., & Slottje, D. (2003). Industrial and Environmental Specialization. Applied Economics Letters, 10, 123-128. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350485022000041023
[70]
Moghaddam, F. M. (1989). Specialization and Despecialization in Psychology: Divergent Processes in the THREE Worlds. International Journal of Psychology, 24, 103-116. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207594.1989.10600036
[71]
Mos, L. P. (1990). Publication, Specialization, and Fragmentation: Psychology in the Academy. Canadian Psychology, 31, 278-282. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0078905
[72]
Neimeyer, G. J., Taylor, J. M., Rozensky, R. H., & Cox, D. R. (2014). The Diminishing Durability of Knowledge in Professional Psychology: A Second Look at Specializations. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 45, 92-98. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036176
[73]
Ono, Y., & Shibata, A. (2006). Long-Run Specialization. Review of International Economics, 14, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9396.2006.00557.x
[74]
Osakwe, P. N. (2007). Primary Commodity and Manufacturing Exports in Africa: Relationships with Foreign Aid, Geography and Resources. Regional and Sectoral Economic Studies, 7, 5-18. http://www.usc.es/economet/reviews/eers711.pdf
[75]
Paunonen, S. V., & Ashton, M. C. (1998). The Structured Assessment of Personality across Cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 29, 150-170. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022198291008
[76]
Porter, M. E. (1985). The Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance. Free Press.
[77]
Randler, C., Rahafar, A., & Großmann, N. (2023). Big Five Personality and Recreation Specialization Are Related to Satisfaction with Life in Birders. Heliyon, 9, e21455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21455
[78]
Ritter, T., Wilkinson, I. F., & Johnston, W. J. (2004). Managing in Complex Business Networks. Industrial Marketing Management, 33, 175-183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2003.10.016
[79]
Robiner, W. N., Dixon, K. E., Miner, J. L., & Hong, B. A. (2012). Board Certification in Psychology: Insights from Medicine and Hospital Psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 19, 30-40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10880-011-9280-1
[80]
Rodolfa, E., Bent, R., Eisman, E., Nelson, P., Rehm, L., & Ritchie, P. (2005). A Cube Model for Competency Development: Implications for Psychology Educators and Regulators. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36, 347-354. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.36.4.347
[81]
Rogers, L. J. (2000). Evolution of Hemispheric Specialization: Advantages and Disadvantages. Brain and Language, 73, 236-253. https://doi.org/10.1006/brln.2000.2305
[82]
Ruffin, R. J. (2009). The Gains from Specialization and Population Size. Economics Letters, 105, 76-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2009.06.002
[83]
Şahin, F., Karadağ, H., & Tuncer, B. (2019). Big Five Personality Traits, Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy and Entrepreneurial Intention. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 25, 1188-1211. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijebr-07-2018-0466
[84]
Sales, B. (1985). Specialization: Past History and Future Alternatives. Clinical Psychologist, 38, 48-52. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1986-02267-001
[85]
Sanchez, R. (1995). Strategic Flexibility in Product Competition. Strategic Management Journal, 16, 135-159. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250160921
[86]
Schilling, M. A., & Steensma, H. K. (2001). The Use of Modular Organizational Forms: An Industry-Level Analysis. The Academy of Management Journal, 44, 1149-1168. https://doi.org/10.2307/3069394
[87]
Shepard, J. M. (1969). Functional Specialization and Work Attitudes. Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, 8, 185-194. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-232x.1969.tb00477.x
[88]
Shin, S. J., & Zhou, J. (2007). When Is Educational Specialization Heterogeneity Related to Creativity in Research and Development Teams? Transformational Leadership as a Moderator. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1709-1721. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.6.1709
[89]
Sigmund, M., Kvintová, J., Dostálová, I., & Hamřík, Z. (2013). Selected Personality Traits and Achievement Motivation in University Students of Physical Culture, Education and Natural Sciences. Acta Gymnica, 43, 37-47. https://doi.org/10.5507/ag.2013.016
[90]
Stam, H. J. (1990). The “So What” and “Who Cares” Responses to Thorngate’s Problem: No One Will Read This Anyway. Canadian Psychology, 31, 282-284. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0078907
[91]
Staudinger, U. M., Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1992). Wisdom-Related Knowledge in a Life Review Task: Age Differences and the Role of Professional Specialization. Psychology and Aging, 7, 271-281. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.7.2.271
[92]
Stevenson, O. (2005). Genericism and Specialization: The Story since 1970. British Journal of Social Work, 35, 569-586. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bch298
[93]
Sultan, S., Labban, O. M., Hamawi, A. M., Alnajrani, A. K., Tawfik, A. M., Felemban, M. H. et al. (2023) Relationship of Big Five Personality Traits and Future Specialty Preference among Undergraduate Medical Students: A Cross-Sectional Study. The Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery, 59, Article No. 103. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41983-023-00699-3
[94]
Sun, G. Z., Yang, X., & Yao, S. (1999). Theoretical Foundation of Economic Development Based on Networking Decisions in the Competitive Market. Working Paper No. 16. Harvard University. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:39398893
[95]
Thorndike, R. L. (1954). The Psychological Value Systems of Psychologists. American Psychologist, 9, 787-789. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0055077
[96]
Thorndike, R. L. (1955). The Structure of Preferences for Psychological Activities among Psychologists. American Psychologist, 10, 205-207. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0041131
[97]
Turner, S. (2003). Liberal Democracy 3.0: Civil Society in an Age of Experts. None SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446217498
[98]
Vrachas, C., & Leontakianakos, G. (2015), Specialization as a Personality Trait and Tendency: Introducing an Instrument of Measuring the Specialization Degree. Part 1. Psychology, 6, 1964-1970. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2015.615194
[99]
Woods, S. A., Mustafa, M. J., Anderson, N., & Sayer, B. (2018). Innovative Work Behavior and Personality Traits. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 33, 29-42. https://doi.org/10.1108/jmp-01-2017-0016
[100]
Yang, X., & Yeh, Y. (2002). Endogenous Specialisation and Endogenous Principal-Agent Relationship. Australian Economic Papers, 41, 15-36. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8454.00147
