Woman leaders in educational leadership roles are
currently facing several obstacles, such as being discriminated against in the
hiring process and being pressured by work and family obligations (Verniers& Vala, 2017). Thus, this topic has not been thoroughly investigated in
Lebanon. The lack of research about this topic in Lebanon underscores the
importance of this study, which explores the relationship between the
experiences of women in education and the following three pertinent themes: 1) gender equality, 2) work and family, and 3)
recruitment and hiring practices. First, this study investigates the
relationship between certain demographic factors (such asage, marital status, age at marriage, educational level, and employment)
and the perceptions of gender equality within women’s workplaces. Second, the
relationship between work and family and the success of females in educational
leadership roles has been examined. Third, this paper explored the relationship
between perceptions of gender equality in the workplace and hiring practices.
The literature review provided a better understanding of the key concepts that
serve as a strong foundation for this study. The literature related to women in
educational leadership has been critically analyzed.
References
[1]
Aburdene, P., & Naisbitt, J. (1992). Megatrends for Women. Villard Books.
[2]
Alan, S., Ertac, S., Kubilay, E., & Loranth, G. (2020). Understanding Gender Differences in Leadership. The Economic Journal, 130, 263-289. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/uez050
[3]
Andersen, S. H. (2018). Paternity Leave and the Motherhood Penalty: New Causal Evidence. Journal of Marriage and Family, 80, 1125-1143. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12507
[4]
Ballenger, J. (2010). Women’s Access to Higher Education Leadership: Cultural and Structural Barriers. Forum on Public Policy, 2010, 1-18.
[5]
Bartol, K. M., Martin, D. C., & Kromkowski, J. A. (2003). Leadership and the Glass Ceiling: Gender and Ethnic Group Influences on Leader Behaviors at Middle and Executive Managerial Levels. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 9, 8-19. https://doi.org/10.1177/107179190300900303
[6]
Bell, J. (2005). Doing Your Research Project: A Guide for First-Time Researchers in Education, Health and Social Science. https://archive.org/details/doingyourresearc0000bell_4th
[7]
Benard, S., Paik, I., & Correll, S. J. (2008). Cognitive Bias and the Motherhood Penalty. Hasting Law Journal, 59, 1359-1388.
[8]
Berheide, C. W. (1992). Women Still ‘Stuck’ in Low-Level Jobs. Women in Public Service: A Bulletin of the Center for Women in Government, 3, 1-4.
[9]
Blithe, S. (2015). Gender Equality and Work-Life Balance: Glass Handcuffs and Working Men in the U.S. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315719191
[10]
Brickell, C. (2006). The Sociological Construction of Gender and Sexuality. The Sociological Review, 54, 87-113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954X.2006.00603.x
[11]
Budig, M. J., & England, P. (2001). The Wage Penalty for Motherhood. American Sociological Review, 66, 204-225. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240106600203
[12]
Burnett, A., Bilen-Green, C., McGeorge, C. R., & Anicha, C. L. (2012). Examining the Complexities of Faculty Attrition: An Analysis of Stem and Non-Stem Faculty Who Remain and Faculty Who Leave the Institution. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 18, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1615/JWomenMinorScienEng.2012003100
[13]
Burns, R. B. (2000). Introduction to Research Methods. Sage.
[14]
Carney, T. (2009). The Employment Disadvantage of Mothers: Evidence for Systemic Discrimination. Journal of Industrial Relations, 51, 113-130. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022185608099668
[15]
Carrigan, T., Connell, R., & Lee, J. (1985). Toward a New Sociology of Masculinity. Theory and Society, 14, 551-604. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00160017
[16]
Carter, D. A., Simkins, B. J., & Simpson, W. G. (2003). Corporate Governance, Board Diversity, and Firm Value. The Financial Review, 38, 33-53. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6288.00034
[17]
Christofides, L. N., Polycarpou, A., & Vrachimis, K. (2013). Gender Wage Gaps, ‘Sticky Floors’ and ‘Glass Ceilings’ in Europe. Working Paper 02-2013, University of Cyprus, Department of Economics. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2013.01.003
[18]
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research Methods in Education (6th ed.). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203029053
[19]
Collinson, D., & Hearn, J. (1996). ‘Men’ at ‘Work’: Multiple Masculinities/Multiple Workplaces. In M. MacAnGhaill (Ed.), Understanding Masculinities (pp. 89-101). Open University Press.
[20]
Correll, S., Benard, S., & Paik, I. (2007). Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty? American Journal of Sociology, 112, 1297-1338. https://doi.org/10.1086/511799
[21]
Corrigan, M. E. (2002). The American College President (2002 ed.). American Council on Education.
[22]
Crittenden, A. (2001). The Price of Motherhood: Why the Most Important Job in the World Is Still the Least Valued. Metropolitan Books.
[23]
Crosby-Hillier, K. (2012). Women and Educational Leadership: Exploring the Experiences of Current and Aspiring Female Educational Administrators. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Windsor. https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/etd/243
[24]
Cullen, D. L., & Luna, G. (1993). Empowering the Faculty: Mentoring Redirected and Renewed. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, Association for the Study of Higher Education.
[25]
Dah, A., Abosedra, S., & Dahbourah, F. (2010). Gender Pay Discrimination in Lebanon, Assessment of Recent Data. Oxford Journal: An International Journal of Business & Economics, 5.
[26]
Darvin, L., Pegoraro, A., & Berri, D. (2017). Are Men Better Leaders? An Investigation of Head Coaches’ Gender and Individual Players’ Performance in Amateur and Professional Women’s Basketball. Sex Roles, 78, 455-466. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0815-2
[27]
Diehl, A. (2014). Making Meaning of Barriers and Adversity: Experiences of Women Leaders in Higher Education. Advancing Women in Leadership, 34, 54-63. https://doi.org/10.21423/awlj-v34.a118
[28]
Diehl, A., & Dzubinski, L. (2016). Making the Invisible Visible: A Cross-Sector Analysis of Gender-Based Leadership Barriers. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 27, 181-206. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21248
[29]
Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2007). Women and the Labyrinth of Leadership. Harvard Business Review, 85, 62-71.
[30]
Eagly, A. H., & Sczesny, S. (2009). Stereotypes About Women, Men, and Leaders: Have Times Changed? In M. Barreto, & M. K. Ryan (Eds.), The Glass Ceiling in the 21st Century: Under-Standing Barriers to Gender Equality (pp. 21-47). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11863-002
[31]
Eckhaus, E., & Ben-Hador, B. (2019). Gossip and Gender Differences: A Content Analysis Approach. Journal of Gender Studies, 28, 97-108. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2017.1411789
[32]
Eklund, K. E., Barry, E. S., & Grunberg, N. E. (2017). Gender and Leadership. In A. Alvinius (Ed.), Gender Differences in Different Contexts. InTech. https://www.intechopen.com/books/gender-differences-in-different-contexts/gender-and-leadership https://doi.org/10.5772/65457
[33]
Ellemers, N. (2014). Women at Work: How Organizational Features Impact Career Development. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1, 46-54. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732214549327
[34]
Fritsch, N. (2015). At the Leading Edge-Does Gender Still Matter? A Qualitative Study of Prevailing Obstacles and Successful Coping Strategies in Academia. Current Sociology, 63, 547-565. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392115576527
[35]
Fritsch, N. (2016). Patterns of Career Development and Their Role in the Advancement of Female Faculty at Austrian Universities: New Roads to Success? Higher Education, 72, 619-635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-015-9967-6
[36]
Gall, J., Gall, M., & Borg, W. (2010). Applying Educational Research: How to Read, Do, and Use Research to Solve Problems for Practice (6th ed.). Pearson.
[37]
Gardner, J. W. (1993). On Leadership. Free Press.
[38]
Goodman, J., Fields, D., & Blum, T. C. (2003). Cracks in the Glass Ceiling: In What Kinds of Organizations Do Women Make It to the Top? Group & Organization Management, 28, 475-501. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601103251232
[39]
Gross, N., & Trask, A. E. (1976). The Sex Factor and the Management of Schools. John Wiley & Sons.
[40]
Growe, R., & Montgomery, P. (1999). Women and the Leadership Paradigm: Bridging the Gender Gap. Unpublished Manuscript, University of Louisiana at Lafayette. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED542614)
[41]
Groysberg, B., & Abrahams, R. (2014). Manage Your Work, Manage Your Life. Harvard Business Review, 92, 58-66. https://hbr.org/2014/03/manage-your-work-manage-your-life
[42]
Hansman, C. (1998). Mentoring and Women’s Career Development. New Directions for adult and Continuing Education, No. 80, 63-71. https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.8007
[43]
Hare-Mustin, R. T., & Broderick, P. C. (1978). The Myth of Motherhood: A Study of Attitudes toward Motherhood. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 4, 114-128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1979.tb00702.x
[44]
International Labour Office (ILO) (2000). ABC of Women Worker’s Rights and Gender Equality. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---gender/documents/publication/wcms_087314.pdf
[45]
Jamali, D., Sidani, Y., & Kobeissi, A. (2008). The Gender Pay Gap Revisited: Insights from a Developing Country Context. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 23, 230-346. https://doi.org/10.1108/17542410810878059
[46]
Jamali, D., Sidani, Y., & Safieddine, A. (2005). Constraints Facing Working Women in Lebanon: An Insider View. Women in Management Review, 20, 581-594. https://doi.org/10.1108/09649420510635213
[47]
Jamielaa, M., & Kawabata, K. (2018). Trade Openness and Gender Wage Gap: Evidence from Indonesia. Journal of International Cooperation Studies, 26, 25-39.
[48]
Johnston, D. D., & Swanson, D. H. (2003). Invisible Mothers: A Content Analysis of Motherhood Ideologies and Myths in Magazines. Sex Roles, 49, 21-33. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023905518500
[49]
Keats, D. (2000). Interviewing: A Practical Guide for Students and Professionals. https://books.google.com.lb/books?printsec=frontcover&vid=ISBN0868405868&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
[50]
Kiger, P. J. (2018). Does Workplace Ageism Affect Women and Men Differently? Stanford Business. https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/insights/does-workplace-ageism-affect-women-men-differently
[51]
Kmec, J. A. (2011). Are Motherhood Penalties and Fatherhood Bonuses Warranted? Comparing Pro-Work Behaviors and Conditions of Mothers, Fathers and Non-Parents. Social Science Research, 40, 444-459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.11.006
[52]
Korenman, S., & Neumark, D. (1992). Marriage, Motherhood, and Wages. Journal of Human Resources, 27, 233-255. https://doi.org/10.2307/145734
[53]
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (1987). The Leadership Challenge: How to Get Extraordinary Things in Organizations. Jossey-Bass.
[54]
Krivkovich, A., Nadeau, M. C., Robinson, K., Starikova, I., & Yee, L. (2018). Women in the Workplace 2018. McKinsey Company. https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/gender-equality/women-in-the-workplace-2018
[55]
Kruger, M. L. (2008). School Leadership, Sex and Gender: Welcome to Difference. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 11, 155-168. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603120701576266
[56]
Liebig, B., & Kron, C. (2017). Ambivalent Benevolence: The Instrumental Rationality of Father-Friendly Policies in Swiss Organizations. In B. Liebig, & M. Oechsle (Eds.), Fathers in Work Organizations (pp. 105-126). Barbara Budrich Publishers. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvdf0bpf.8
[57]
Long, J. L. (2008). Women Chief Financial Officers in Higher Education. Overcoming Internal and External Barriers to Leadership. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Widener University.
[58]
Madden, M. (2011). Gender Stereotypes of Leaders: Do They Influence Leadership in Higher Education? Wagadu: A Journal of Transnational Women’s & Gender Studies, 9, 55-88. https://digitalcommons.cortland.edu/wagadu/vol9/iss1/4
[59]
Maji, S. (2019). “Doing Men’s Jobs”: A Commentary on Work-Life Balance Issues among Women in Engineering and Technology. Metamorphosis, 18, 68-75. https://doi.org/10.1177/0972622519854887
[60]
Martin, A. E., North, M. S., & Philips, K. W. (2019). Intersectional Escape: Older Women Elude Agentic Prescriptions More Than Older Men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45, 342-359. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218784895
[61]
Moreton, A. L., & Newsom, R. W. (2004). Personal and Academic Backgrounds of Female Chief Academic Officers in Evangelical Christian Colleges and Universities: Part I. Christian Higher Education, 3, 79-95. https://doi.org/10.1080/15363750490264906
[62]
Morgan, M. S. (2015). Glass Ceilings and Sticky Floors: Drawing New Ontologies. Economic History Working Papers, London School of Economics. http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/64807/1/WP228.pdf
[63]
O’sullivan, T. (2019). Ageism and the Gender Pay Gap: Why Getting Older Can Be Problematic for Women. Entrepreneur. https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/330180
[64]
Phelps, D. G., & Taber, L. S. (1997). African American Community College Presidents. Community College Review, 24, 3-27. https://doi.org/10.1177/009155219702400402
[65]
Porat, K. L. (1991). Women in Administration: The Difference Is Positive. The Clearing House, 64, 412-414. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.1991.9955907
[66]
Prime, J., Jonsen, K., Carter, N., & Maznevski, M. L. (2008). Managers’ Perceptions of Women and Men Leaders: A Cross Cultural Comparison. International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management, 8, 171-210. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470595808091789
[67]
Ridgeway, C. L., & Correll, S. J. (2004). Unpacking the Gender System: A Theoretical Perspective on Gender Beliefs and Social Relations. Gender & Society, 18, 510-531. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243204265269
[68]
Ryder, M. (1994). Women in Educational Administration. Thrust for Educational Leadership, 23.
[69]
Shakeshaft, C. (1989). Women in Educational Administration. Corwin Press.
[70]
Shepherd, S. (2017). Why Are There So Few Female Leaders in Higher Education: A Case of Structure or Agency? Management in Education, 31, 82-87. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0892020617696631 https://doi.org/10.1177/0892020617696631
[71]
Silva, C., & Carter, N. (2011). New Research Busts Myths about the Gender Gap. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2011/10/new-research-busts-myths-about
[72]
Timmers, T. M., Willemsen, T. M., & Tijdens, K. G. (2010). Gender Diversity Policies in Universities: A Multi-Perspective Framework of Policy Measures. Higher Education, 59, 719-735. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-009-9276-z
[73]
Tlaiss, H., & Kauser, S. (2010). Perceived Organizational Barriers to Women’s Career Advancement in Lebanon. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 25, 462-496. https://doi.org/10.1108/17542411011069882
[74]
Tlaiss, H., & Kauser, S. (2011). The Impact of Gender, Family, and Work on the Career Advancement of Lebanese Women Managers. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 26, 8-36. https://doi.org/10.1108/17542411111109291
[75]
Townsend, N. W. (2002). The Package Deal: Marriage, Work, and Fatherhood in Men’s Lives. Temple University Press.
[76]
U.S. Census Bureau (2000). Gender: 2000. Census 2000 Brief. https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/2000/briefs/c2kbr01-09.pdf
[77]
Verniers, C., & Vala, J. (2017). Justifying Gender Discrimination in the Workplace: The Mediating Role of Motherhood Myths. PLOS ONE, 13, e0190657. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0190657&type=printable https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190657
[78]
Vlasnik, A. L. (2011). Historical Constructs of Gender and Work: Informing Access and Equity in U.S. Higher Education. In J. L. Martin (Ed.), Women as Leaders in Education: Women’s Leadership in Higher Education (pp. 23-44). Praeger.
[79]
Wirth, L. (2001). Women in Management: Closer to Breaking through the Glass Ceiling. In M. F. Loutfi (Ed.), International Labor Review (pp. 93-102). International Labour Organization.
[80]
Yanez, J. L., & Moreno, M. S. (2007). Women Leaders as Agents of Change in Higher Education Organizations. Gender in Management, 23, 86-102. https://doi.org/10.1108/17542410810858303