The use of antibiotics in humans and animals has been marked as a significant step in health due to their effectiveness in controlling and treating bacterial infections. The misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been identified as risk factors for bacterial resistance since microorganisms adapt and develop mechanisms to defend against antibiotics. According to the Centers for Disease Protection and Control (CDC), around 23,000 individuals die every year in the United States due to antibiotic resistance complications. As a result, a demand for alternative treatments has been a goal for scientists as the microbes adapt to selective pressure. The aim of this study is to test the antibacterial activity of leaf extracts of Peganum harmala and Haloxylon salicornicum on both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria on various mediums. The results of the study showed that both P. harmala and H. salicornicum inhibited the bacterial growth in two different media. The results were also compared with different common antibiotics used in both human’s and animal’s fields and showed a promising outcome as alternative antibiotics.
References
[1]
World Health Organization (2023) Antimicrobial Resistance. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antimicrobial-resistance
[2]
GBD 2019 Antimicrobial Resistance Collaborators (2022) Global Mortality Associated with 33 Bacterial Pathogens in 2019: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet, 400, 2221-2248. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36423648/
Zhang, C., Fu, X., Liu, Y., Zhao, H. and Wang, G. (2023) Burden of Infectious Diseases and Bacterial Antimicrobial Resistance in China: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet Regional Health Western Pacific, 43, Article ID: 100972. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanwpc.2023.100972
[5]
GBD 2019 Antimicrobial Resistance Collaborators (2022) Global Mortality Associated with 33 Bacterial Pathogens in 2019: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet, 400, 2221-2248.
[6]
Aslam, B., Wang, W., Arshad, M.I., Khurshid, M., Muzammil, S., Rasool, M.H., Nisar, M.A., Alvi, R.F., Aslam, M.A., Qamar, M.U., Salamat, M.K.F. and Baloch, Z. (2018) Antibiotic Resistance: A Rundown of a Global Crisis. Infection and Drug Resistance, 11, 1645-1658. https://doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S173867
[7]
Rahman, M.M., Alam Tumpa, M.A., Zehravi, M., Sarker, M.T., Yamin, M., Islam, M.R., Harun-or-Rashid, M., Ahmed, M., Ramproshad, S., Mondal, B., Dey, A., Damiri, F., Berrada, M., Rahman, M.H. and Cavalu, S. (2022) An Overview of Antimicrobial Stewardship Optimization: The Use of Antibiotics in Humans and Animals to Prevent Resistance. Antibiotics, 11, Article 667. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11050667
[8]
Boucher, H.W. and Corey, G.R. (2008) Epidemiology of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 46, S344-S349. https://doi.org/10.1086/533590
[9]
Grossman, T.H. (2016) Tetracycline Antibiotics and Resistance. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, 6, a025387. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a025387
[10]
Cheng, G., Hao, H., Dai, M., Liu, Z. and Yuan, Z. (2013) Antibacterial Action of Quinolones: From Target to Network. European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 66, 555-562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2013.01.057
[11]
Duraipandiyan, V., Ayyanar, M. and Ignacimuthu, S. (2006) Antimicrobial Activity of Some Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Paliyar Tribe from Tamil Nadu, India. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 6, Article No. 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-6-35
[12]
Vaou, N., Stavropoulou, E., Voidarou, C., Tsigalou, C. and Bezirtzoglou, E. (2021) Towards Advances in Medicinal Plant Antimicrobial Activity: A Review Study on Challenges and Future Perspectives. Microorganisms, 9, Article 2041. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9102041
[13]
Srinivasan, D., Nathan, S., Suresh, T. and Lakshmana Perumalsamy, P. (2001) Antimicrobial Activity of Certain Indian Medicinal Plants Used in Folkloric Medicine. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 74, 217-220. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00345-7
[14]
Mehta, S.R., Yusuf, S., Peters, R.J., Bertrand, M.E., Lewis, B.S., Natarajan, M.K., Malmberg, K., Rupprecht, H., Zhao, F., Chrolavicius, S., Copland, I., Fox, K.A. and Clopidogrel in Unstable Angina to Prevent Recurrent Events Trial (CURE) Investigators (2001) Effects of Pretreatment with Clopidogrel and Aspirin Followed by Long-Term Therapy in Patients Undergoing Percutaneous Coronary Intervention: The PCI-CURE Study. The Lancet, 358, 527-533. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05701-4
[15]
Azmir, J., Zaidul, I.S.M., Rahman, M.M., Sharif, K.M., Mohamed, A., Sahena, F., Jahurul, M.H.A., Ghafoor, K., Norulaini, N.A.N. and Omar, A.K.M. (2013) Techniques for Extraction of Bioactive Compounds from Plant Materials: A Review. Journal of Food Engineering, 117, 426-436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2013.01.014
[16]
kidane, A., et al. (2019) Anti-Bacterial Activities of Selected Traditional Medicinal Plants Against Urinary Tract Infection Causing Microorganisms. International Journal of Medicinal Plants and Natural Products, 5, 16-22. https://doi.org/10.20431/2454-7999.0501003
[17]
Ifesan, B.O.T., Fashakin, J.F., Ebosele, F. and Oyerinde, A.S. (2013) Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Properties of Selected Plant Leaves. European Journal of Medicinal Plants, 3, 465-473. https://doi.org/10.9734/EJMP/2013/3383
[18]
Marwat, S.K. and ur Rehman, F. (2011) Chapter 70—Medicinal and Pharmacological Potential of Harmala (Peganum harmala L.) Seeds. In: Preedy, V.R., Watson, R.R. and Patel, V.B., Eds., Nuts and Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention, Academic Press, Cambridge, 585-599. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123756886100702 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-375688-6.10070-2
[19]
Rugaie, O.A., Mohammed, H.A., Alsamani, S., Messaoudi, S., Aroua, L.M., Khan, R.A., Almahmoud, S.A., Altaleb, A.D., Alsharidah, M., Aldubaib, M., et al. (2023) Antimicrobial, Antibiofilm, and Antioxidant Potentials of Four Halophytic Plants, Euphorbia chamaesyce, Bassia arabica, Fagonia mollis, and Haloxylon salicornicum, Growing in Qassim Region of Saudi Arabia: Phytochemical Profile and in Vitro and in Silico Bioactivity Investigations. Antibiotics, 12, Article 501. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12030501
[20]
Alhawiti, N., Alramadhan, W., Boadi, W. and Myles, E. (2023) Anticancer Activity of Peganum harmala and Haloxylon salicornicum Leaf Extracts on Lung Cancer A549 and Prostate Cancer PC-3 Cell Lines. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 14, 1360-1374. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2023.1411092
[21]
Hartmann, J. and Asch, F. (2019) Extraction, Storage Duration, and Storage Temperature Affect the Activity of Ascorbate Peroxidase, Glutathione Reductase, and Superoxide Dismutase in Rice Tissue. Biology, 8, Article 70. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology8040070
[22]
Salminen, J.P. (2003) Effects of Sample Drying and Storage, and Choice of Extraction Solvent and Analysis Method on the Yield of Birch Leaf Hydrolyzable Tannins. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 29, 1289-1305. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024249016741
[23]
Christenson, J.C., Korgenski, E.K. and Relich, R.F. (2018) Laboratory Diagnosis of Infection Due to Bacteria, Fungi, Parasites, and Rickettsiae. In: Long, S.S., Prober, C.G. and Fischer, M., Eds., Principles and Practice of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1422-1434.e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-40181-4.00286-3
[24]
Disk Diffusion Susceptibility Testing. https://www.cdc.gov/std/gonorrhea/lab/diskdiff.htm
[25]
Hudzicki, J. (2009) Kirby-Bauer Disk Diffusion Susceptibility Test Protocol. https://asm.org/getattachment/2594ce26-bd44-47f6-8287-0657aa9185ad/Kirby-Bauer-Disk-DiffusionSusceptibility-Test-Protocol-pdf.pdf
[26]
https://clsi.org/
[27]
Darabpour, E., Poshtkouhian Bavi, A., Motamedi, H. and Seyyed Nejad, S.M. (2011) Antibacterial Activity of Different Parts of Peganum harmala L. Growing in Iran against Multi-Drug Resistant Bacteria. EXCLI Journal, 10, 252-263.
