This study was carried out to assess the effect of other implicit
attitudes about one’s self-concept on his/her self-concept, emotional
intelligence, personality and ego defense mechanisms in bank employees with
high emotional intelligence compared with ones with low emotional intelligence.
This study involved 153 participants. Subjects were classified into two
experimental groups and one control group. The Beck’s self-concept inventory,
Bar-On emotional intelligence inventory, Defense Styles Questionnaire and NEO
Personality Inventory-Revised were applied to assess self-concept, emotional
intelligence, ego defense styles and personality characteristics of middle
participants of Mellat Bank branches, in Tehran, Iran. The control pre and
post-test designs were performed for this
study. The research data were analyzed using descriptive analysis, partial correlation, ANCOVA and
MANCOVA with a significant level of 0.05. All experimental groups
received Beck’s self-concept inventory. The analysis showed significant
reduction (pre-test to post-test) in low EQ experimental group, enhancing
immature defense style and also, partial correlation of Beck self-concept with
ego defensive styles, NEO-PI-R, Bar-On EQ-I and its components with controlling
of gender and educational level in adult bank employees at the shows that in
the result, a very much stronger negative
correlation between Beck’s self-concept with neuroticism (N) and positive correlation
with extraversion (E), conscientiousness (C), Bar-On EQ-I, intrapersonal
intelligence, general mood and immature defense style and no significant correlation
was observed between openness (O), agreeableness (A), interpersonal
intelligence, adaptability, stress management, mature and neurotic defense
style.
References
[1]
Ajzen, I. (2002). Perceived Behavioral Control, Self-Efficacy, Locus of Control, and the Theory of Planned Behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32, 665-683. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb00236.x
[2]
Alegre, A., Pérez-Escoda, N., & López-Cassá, E. (2019). The Relationship between Trait Emotional Intelligence and Personality. Is Trait EI Really Anchored within the Big Five, Big Two and Big One Frameworks? Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 866. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00866
[3]
Alexander, F. (1931). Schizophrenic Psychoses: Critical Considerations of the Psychoanalytic Treatment. Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry, 26, 815-828. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneurpsyc.1931.02230100133011
[4]
Andrews, G., Singh, M., & Bond, M. (1993). The Defense Style Questionnaire. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 181, 246-256. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-199304000-00006
[5]
Barnard, A., & Herbst, R. (2005). The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Self-Actualisation. South African Journal of Labour Relations, 29, 53-71.
[6]
Bar-On, R. (2004). The Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): Rationale, Description and Summary of Psychometric Properties. In G. Geher (Ed.), Measuring Emotional Intelligence: Common Ground and Controversy (pp. 115-145). Nova Science Publishers.
[7]
Battegay, R. (1989). The Ego-Defense Mechanisms and Coping. Zeitschrift für Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychoanalyse, 35, 220-240.
[8]
Beck, A. T. (Ed.) (1979). Cognitive Therapy of Depression. Guilford press.
[9]
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Epstein, N., & Brown, G. (1990). Beck Self-Concept Test. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 2, 191-197. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.2.2.191
[10]
Bellmore, A. D., & Cillessen, A. H. (2006). Reciprocal Influences of Victimization, Perceived Social Preference, and Self-Concept in Adolescence. Self and Identity, 5, 209-229. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860600636647
[11]
Berk, L. E. (2022). Development through the Lifespan. Sage Publications.
[12]
Besharat, M. A., & Shahidi, S. (2011). What Is the Relationship between Alexithymia and Ego Defense Styles? A Correlational Study with Iranian Students. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 4, 145-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2011.05.011
[13]
Besharat, M. A., Hajiaqazadeh, M., & Ghorbani, N. (2007). Analysis of the Relationship between Emotional Intelligence, Defense Mechanisms and General Intelligence. Contemporary Psychology, Biannual Journal of the Iranian Psychological Association, 2, 49-58.
[14]
Blackman, J. S. (2023). Some Arguments about Free Association as a Technique. The American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 83, 22-35. https://doi.org/10.1057/s11231-023-09393-y
[15]
Bogo, N., Winget, C., & Gleser, G. C. (1970). Ego Defenses and Perceptual Styles. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 30, 599-605. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1970.30.2.599
[16]
Buller, S. (2018). Understanding Davanloo’s Intensive Short-Term Dynamic Psychotherapy: A Guide for Clinicians. Psychodynamic Practice, 24, 281-288. https://doi.org/10.1080/14753634.2018.1435301
[17]
Cabello, R., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2015). Implicit Theories and Ability Emotional Intelligence. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 700. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00700
[18]
Calero, A. D., Barreyro, J. P., & Injoque-Ricle, I. (2018). Emotional Intelligence and Self-Perception in Adolescents. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 14, 632-643. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v14i3.1506
[19]
Catina, A., Gitzinger, I., & Hoeckh, H. (1992). Defense Mechanisms: An Approach from the Perspective of Personal Construct Psychology. International Journal of Personal Construct Psychology, 5, 249-257. https://doi.org/10.1080/08936039208404315
[20]
Chen, S., English, T., & Peng, K. (2006). Self-Verification and Contextualized Self-Views. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 930-942. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206287539
[21]
Conte, H. R., & Plutchik, R. (Eds.) (1995). Ego Defenses: Theory and Measurement. John Wiley & Sons.
[22]
Costa, H., Ripoll, P., Sánchez, M., & Carvalho, C. (2013). Emotional Intelligence and Self-Efficacy: Effects on Psychological Well-Being in College Students. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 16, E50. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2013.39
[23]
Cramer, P. (1997). Identity, Personality, and Defense Mechanisms: An Observer-Based Study. Journal of Research in Personality, 31, 58-77. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1997.2171
[24]
Danto, E. A. (2023). Anna Freud’s Advances in Community Psychoanalysis. Psychoanalytic Social Work, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15228878.2023.2254005
[25]
Davanloo, H., & Benoit, C. (1978). Transference in Short-Term Dynamic Psychotherapy. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 29, 305-306. https://doi.org/10.1159/000287146
[26]
Davidson, K., & MacGregor, M. W. (1998). A Critical Appraisal of Self-Report Defense Mechanism Measures. Journal of Personality, 66, 965-992. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00039
[27]
Dehshiri, R. (2003). The Reliability and Validity of EQ-I in Iran’s Context. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Allame Tabataba’i University.
[28]
Di Gioia, R., Di Pomponio, I., Gemo, M., & Chaudron, S. (2019). Attitudes towards Cyber Risks Implicit and Self-Report Measures. Publications Office of the European Union.
[29]
Dunlop, W. L. (2017). Situating Self-Concept Clarity in the Landscape of Personality. In J. Lodi-Smith, & K. DeMarree (Eds.), Self-Concept Clarity: Perspectives on Assessment, Research, and Applications (pp. 19-41). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71547-6_2
[30]
Epstein, S., & Morling, B. (1995). Is the Self Motivated to Do More than Enhance and/or Verify Itself? In M. H. Kernis (Eds.), Efficacy, Agency, and Self-Esteem (pp. 9-29). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-1280-0_2
[31]
Fin, L. S., & Ishak, Z. (2014). Non-Academic Self Concept and Academic Achievement: The Indirect Effect Mediated by Academic Self Concept. Research Journal in Organizational Psychology & Educational Studies, 3, 184-188.
[32]
Freud, S. (1936). Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 5, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/21674086.1936.11925270
[33]
Freud, S. (1989). The Ego and the ID (1923). TACD Journal, 17, 5-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/1046171X.1989.12034344
[34]
Garousi, F. M, Mehryar, A. H., & Ghazi, T. M. (2001). Application of the NEOPI-R Test and Analytic Evaluation of It. J Human, 11, 173-98. (In Persian)
[35]
Glas, G. (2006). Person, Personality, Self, and Identity: A Philosophically Informed Conceptual Analysis. Journal of Personality Disorders, 20, 126-138. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2006.20.2.126
[36]
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit Social Cognition: Attitudes, Self-Esteem, and Stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4-27. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4
[37]
Haghshenas, H. (2006). Five-Factor Personality Traits: Guidelines for Interpreting and Testing Norms NEOPI-R and NEO FFI. Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, 1, 114-117.
[38]
Herringer, L. G., & Haws, S. C. (1991). Perception of Personality Traits in Oneself and Others. Journal of Psychology, 125, 33-43. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1991.10543267
[39]
Hickey, C. M. (2015). Multidimensional Unconscious Structural Changes in Davanloo’s Intensive Short-Term Dynamic Psychotherapy. Part I. Archives of Psychiatry & Psychotherapy, 17, 45-51. https://doi.org/10.12740/APP/36560
[40]
Holmes, R. M. (2020). Cultural Psychology: Exploring Culture and Mind in Diverse Communities. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199343805.001.0001
[41]
Kihlstrom, J. F., Albright, J. S., Klein, S. B., Cantor, N., Chew, B. R., & Niedenthal, P. M. (1988). Information Processing and the Study of the Self. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 145-178). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60226-9
[42]
Knight Lapinski, M., & Boster, F. J. (2001). Modeling the Ego-Defensive Function of Attitudes. Communication Monographs, 68, 314-324. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750128062
[43]
Lau, P. W., Cheung, M. W., & Ransdell, L. B. (2008). A Structural Equation Model of the Relationship between Body Perception and Self-Esteem: Global Physical Self-Concept as the Mediator. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9, 493-509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.07.005
[44]
Lindfors, O., Knekt, P., Heinonen, E., & Virtala, E. (2014). Self-Concept and Quality of Object Relations as Predictors of Outcome in Short- and Long-Term Psychotherapy. Journal of Affective Disorders, 152, 202-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2013.09.011
[45]
Lumbantobing, R. (2020). The Relationship between Self-Concept and Emotional Intelligence. In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Education, Society, Economy, Humanity and Environment (ICESHE 2019) (pp. 69-74). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.200311.014
[46]
MacCann, C., Matthews, G., Zeidner, M., & Roberts, R. D. (2003). Psychological Assessment of Emotional Intelligence: A Review of Self-Report and Performance-Based Testing. The International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 11, 247-274. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb028975
[47]
Macedo, L. S. R. D., & Silveira, A. D. C. D. (2012). Self: A Concept in Development. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 22, 281-290. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-863X2012000200014
[48]
Madon, S., Smith, A., Jussim, L., Russell, D. W., Eccles, J., Palumbo, P., & Walkiewicz, M. (2001). Am I as You See Me or Do You See Me as I Am? Self-Fulfilling Prophecies and Self-Verification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 1214-1224. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201279013
[49]
Mahasneh, A. M. M. (2013). Investigation Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Personality Traits among Sample of Jordanian University Students. Cross-Cultural Communication, 9, 82-86.
[50]
McAbee, S. T., & Connelly, B. S. (2016). A Multi-Rater Framework for Studying Personality: The Trait-Reputation-Identity Model. Psychological Review, 123, 569-591. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000035
[51]
McAdams, D. P., Trzesniewski, K., Lilgendahl, J., Benet-Martinez, V., & Robins, R. W. (2021). Self and Identity in Personality Psychology. Personality Science, 2, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.5964/ps.6035
[52]
McCann, D., & Sato, T. (2000). Personality, Cognition, and the Self. European Journal of Personality, 14, 449-461. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-0984(200009/10)14:5<449::AID-PER392>3.0.CO;2-R
[53]
McConnell, A. R., & Strain, L. M. (2011). Content and Structure of the Self-Concept. In C. Sedikides, & S. J. Spencer (Eds.), The Self (pp. 51-73). Psychology Press.
[54]
McCrae, R. R., & John, O. P. (1992). An Introduction to the Five-Factor Model and Its Applications. Journal of Personality, 60, 175-215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1992.tb00970.x
[55]
McCullough, L. (1991). Davanloo’s Short-Term Dynamic Psychotherapy: A Cross-Theoretical Analysis of Change Mechanisms. In R. C. Curtis, & G. Stricker (Eds.), How People Change: Inside and Outside Therapy (pp. 59-79). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0741-7_6
[56]
Meleddu, M., & Guicciardi, M. (1998). Self-Knowledge and Social Desirability of Personality Traits. European Journal of Personality, 12, 151-168. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0984(199805/06)12:3<151::AID-PER296>3.0.CO;2-C
[57]
Mercer, S. (2012). Self-Concept: Situating the Self. In S. Mercer, S. Ryan, & M. Williams (Eds.), Psychology for Language Learning: Insights from Research, Theory and Practice (pp. 10-25). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137032829_2
[58]
Mishar, R., & Bangun, Y. R. (2014). Create the EQ Modelling Instrument Based on Goleman and Bar-On Models and Psychological Defense Mechanisms. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 115, 394-406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.02.446
[59]
Modell, A. H. (1975). A Narcissistic Defence against Affects and the Illusion of Self-Sufficiency. The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 56, 275-282.
[60]
Mulder, R. T., Joyce, P. R., Sellman, J. D., Sullivan, P. F., & Cloninger, C. R. (1996). Towards an Understanding of Defense Style in Terms of Temperament and Character. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 93, 99-104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1996.tb09809.x
[61]
Nawi, N. H. M. (2012). Inter Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Personality Trait of Educator Leaders. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 2, 223-237.
[62]
Nikolaou, I., & Tsaousis, I. (2002). Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace: Exploring Its Effects on Occupational Stress and Organizational Commitment. The International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 10, 327-342. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb028956
[63]
Paulhus, D. L., & John, O. P. (1998). Egoistic and Moralistic Biases in Self-Perception: The Interplay of Self-Deceptive Styles with Basic Traits and Motives. Journal of Personality, 66, 1025-1060. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00041
[64]
Pellitteri, J. (2002). The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Ego Defense Mechanisms. The Journal of Psychology, 136, 182-194. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980209604149
[65]
Phillips, S. (1983). Self Concept and Self Esteem: Infancy to Adolescence. A Cognitive Developmental Outline with Some Reference to Behaviour and Health Effects. Unit for Child Studies. Selected Papers Number 27. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED250095.pdf
[66]
Pop-Jordanova, N., & Stoimenova-Canevska, E. (2014). Emotional Intelligence and Big-Five Personality Factors in Female Student Sample. Prilozi, 35, 59-66. https://doi.org/10.2478/prilozi-2014-0008
[67]
Rinn, A. N., & Cunningham, L. G. (2008). Using Self-Concept Instruments with High-Ability College Students: Reliability and Validity Evidence. Gifted child Quarterly, 52, 232-242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986208319458
[68]
Rogers, T. B., Kuiper, N. A., & Kirker, W. S. (1977). Self-Reference and the Encoding of Personal Information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 677-688. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.35.9.677
[69]
Roşu, S., Dumitrescu, A. L., Dănilă, I., & Zetu, I. (2013). Self-Concept, Social Physique Anxiety, Social Comparison, Shyness, Sociability and Oral Health in Romanian Undergraduates. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 78, 481-485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.04.335
[70]
Saikia, R. (2020). A Study on Self-Concept. International Education & Research Journal, 6, 1-2.
[71]
Shamir, B. (1991). Meaning, Self and Motivation in Organizations. Organization Studies, 12, 405-424. https://doi.org/10.1177/017084069101200304
[72]
Shamsi, N., Kajbaf, M. B., & Tabatabaie, S. S. (2015). Evaluating Feasibility, Validity, Reliability and Norm Finding of the Beck’s Self-Concept Questionnaire. Scimetr, 3, e23291. https://doi.org/10.5812/scimetr.23291
[73]
Shavelson, R. J., Hubner, J. J., & Stanton, G. C. (1976). Self-Concept: Validation of Construct Interpretations. Review of Educational Research, 46, 407-441. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543046003407
[74]
Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., Rawsthorne, L. J., & Ilardi, B. (1997). Trait Self and True Self: Cross-Role Variation in the Big-Five Personality Traits and Its Relations with Psychological Authenticity and Subjective Well-Being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1380-1393. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.6.1380
[75]
Sherman, D. K., & Hartson, K. A. (2011). Reconciling Self-Protection with Self-Improvement. In M. D. Alicke, & C. Sedikides (Eds.), Handbook of Self-Enhancement and Self-Protection (pp. 128-151). The Guilford Press.
[76]
Sias, P. M. (2008). Organizing Relationships: Traditional and Emerging Perspectives on Workplace Relationships. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452204031
[77]
Sims, D. A. (2023). Reimaging Reflexivity through a Critical Theoretical Framework: Autoethnographic Narratives on Becoming a (De)colonised Researcher. Critical Studies in Teaching and Learning, 11, 120-138. https://doi.org/10.14426/cristal.v11i1.642
[78]
Sjöberg, L., & Engelberg, E. (2004). Measuring and Validating Emotional Intelligence as Performance or Self-Report. SSE/EFI Working Paper Series in Business Administration.
[79]
Sorensen, B. M. D. (2022). ISTDP and Psychosis: An Investigation into the Role of Unconscious Conflict and Emotions. Doctoral Dissertation, Macquarie University.
[80]
Sternke, J. C. (2010). Self-Concept and Self-Esteem in Adolescents with Learning Disabilities. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Stout.
[81]
Stough, C., Saklofske, D. H., & Parker, J. D. (Eds.) (2009). Assessing Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Research, and Applications. Springer Science + Business Media.
[82]
Swann, W. B. (1997). The Trouble with Change: Self-Verification and Allegiance to the Self. Psychological Science, 8, 177-180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00407.x
[83]
Swann, W. B., & Read, S. J. (1981). Acquiring Self-Knowledge: The Search for Feedback That Fits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 1119-1128. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.41.6.1119
[84]
Swann, W. B., Pelham, B. W., & Krull, D. S. (1989). Agreeable Fancy or Disagreeable Truth? Reconciling Self-Enhancement and Self-Verification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 782-791. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.5.782
[85]
Swann, W. B., Wenzlaff, R. M., Krull, D. S., & Pelham, B. W. (1992). Allure of Negative Feedback: Self-Verification Strivings among Depressed Persons. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 293-306. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.101.2.293
[86]
Vaillant, G. E. (1994). Ego Mechanisms of Defense and Personality Psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 44-50. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.103.1.44
[87]
Valliant, G. E. (1976). Natural History of Male Psychological Health. Archives of General Psychiatry, 33, 535-545. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1976.01770050003001
[88]
Van Zanden, B., Marsh, H. W., Seaton, M., & Parker, P. (2015). Self-Concept: From Unidimensional to Multidimensional and Beyond. In J. D. Wright (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (pp. 460-468). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.25089-7
[89]
Vohs, K. D., & Heatherton, T. F. (2001). Self-Esteem and Threats to Self: Implications for Self-Construals and Interpersonal Perceptions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1103-1118. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.6.1103
[90]
Weinberger, D. A. (1998). Defenses, Personality Structure, and Development: Integrating Psychodynamic Theory into a Typological Approach to Personality. Journal of Personality, 66, 1061-1080. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00042
[91]
Yardley, K., & Honess, T. (1986). Self and Identity: Psychosocial Perspectives. Wiley.
[92]
Zarrin, S. A., Asadi, M., Jafari, Z., & Nezhad, Z. T. (2021). Role of Spirituality and Five Personality Traits in the Prediction of Perceived Stress in Mothers of Mentally-Retarded Children. Health, Spirituality and Medical Ethics, 8, 35-43.
