Within the expanse of China’s coastline, the invasive alien cordgrass species Spartina alterniflora has caused profound nationwide damage and has emerged as a critical factor contributing to the degradation of mangrove wetlands, especially in the study area in Beihai, Guangxi. However, current treatments for S. alterniflora remain less effective and limited research focuses on the preliminary changes after artificial plantation. A comprehensive approach combining physical interventions with biological control measures has been employed to eradicate smooth cordgrass and facilitate the restoration of native mangrove wetlands. The study involved the periodic monitoring of the growth conditions of mangroves and the biodiversity of avian and benthic organisms, conducted at three to four-month intervals following the artificial plantation with one-year-old seedlings and propagules of native mangrove species Rhizophora stylosa. Results indicated that through the allometric equation, the above-ground biomass of planted seedlings had a ~20 g increase in average but the growth conditions were not significant over an eight-month period. High percentage of important avian species underlined the potential of the study site to serve as a worthwhile habitat and notable seasonal variations were observed in the biodiversity of bird species. Biodiversity indices of bird and benthos species also followed a similar fluctuation and reached a peak in April 2023. This research underscores the initial lack of distinct improvements during the early stages of the ecological restoration project, thorough maintenance, long-term monitoring, holistic considerations on a larger scale would be imperative for ongoing projects in the future.
References
[1]
Cui, B., Xie, T., Wang, Q., Li, S., Yan, J., Yu, S., Liu, K., Zheng, J. and Liu, Z. (2017) Impact of Large-Scale Reclamation on Coastal Wetlands and Implications for Ecological Restoration, Compensation, and Sustainable Exploitation Framework. Bulletin of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Chinese Version), 32, 418-425.
[2]
Feller, I.C., Lovelock, C.E., Berger, U., McKee, K.L., Joye, S.B. and Ball, M. (2010) Biocomplexity in Mangrove Ecosystems. Annual Review of Marine Science, 2, 395-417. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163809
[3]
Costanza, R., Pérez-Maqueo, O., Martinez, M.L., Sutton, P., Anderson, S.J. and Mulder, K. (2008) The Value of Coastal Wetlands for Hurricane Protection. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 37, 241-248. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25547893 https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447(2008)37[241:TVOCWF]2.0.CO;2
[4]
Howard, J., Hoyt, S., Isensee, K., Telszewski, M. and Pidgeon, E. (2014) Coastal Blue Carbon: Methods for Assessing Carbon Stocks and Emissions Factors in Mangroves, Tidal Salt Marshes, and Seagrass Meadows. Conservation International, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Arlington.
[5]
Rogers, K., Saintilan, N., Mazumder, D. and Kelleway, J.J. (2019) Mangrove Dynamics and Blue Carbon Sequestration. Biology Letters, 15, Article ID: 20180471. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0471
[6]
Chen, L. (2019) Invasive Plants in Coastal Wetlands: Patterns and Mechanisms. In: An, S. and Verhoeven, J., Eds., Wetlands: Ecosystem Services, Restoration and Wise Use, Springer, Cham, 97-128. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14861-4_5
[7]
Lee, S.Y. and Khim, J.S. (2017) Hard Science Is Essential to Restoring Soft-Sediment Intertidal Habitats in Burgeoning East Asia. Chemosphere, 168, 765-776. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.10.136
[8]
Lin, P. (1999) Mangrove Ecosystem in China. Science Press, Beijing.
[9]
Wang, W. (2021) Research of Conservation and Restoration Strategy of Mangrove Wetlands in China. China Environmental Science Press, Beijing.
[10]
Wang, W. and Wang, M. (2007) The Mangroves of China. Science Press, Beijing.
[11]
Macintosh, D.J., Ashton, E.C. and Havanon, S. (2002) Mangrove Rehabilitation and Intertidal Biodiversity: A Study in the Ranong Mangrove Ecosystem, Thailand. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 55, 331-345. https://doi.org/10.1006/ecss.2001.0896
[12]
Fan, H. and Li, G. (1997) Effect of Sea Dike on the Quantity, Community Characteristics and Restoration of Mangrove Forest along Guangxi Coast. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology, 3, 240-244.
[13]
Bernhardt, K.G. and Koch, M. (2003) Restoration of a Salt Marsh System: Temporal Change of Plant Species Diversity and Composition. Basic and Applied Ecology, 4, 441-451. https://doi.org/10.1078/1439-1791-00180
[14]
Zhang, Y., Huang, G., Wang, W., Chen, L. and Lin, G. (2012) Interactions between Mangroves and Exotic Spartina in an Anthropogenically Disturbed Estuary in Southern China. Ecology, 93, 588-597. https://doi.org/10.1890/11-1302.1
[15]
National Forestry and Grassland Administration of China, Ministry of Natural Resources of the People’s Republic of China, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People’s Republic of China, Ministry of Water Resources of the People’s Republic of China and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China (2023) Special Action Plan for Spartina alterniflora Treatment (2022-2025).
[16]
Ayres, D.R., Smith, D.L., Zaremba, K., Klohr, S. and Strong, D.R. (2004) Spread of Exotic Cordgrasses and Hybrids (Spartina Sp.) in the Tidal Marshes of San Francisco Bay, California, USA. Biological Invasions, 6, 221-231. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BINV.0000022140.07404.b7
[17]
Lacambra, C., Cutts, N., Allen, J., Burd, F. and Elliot, M. (2004) Spartina Anglica: A Review of Its Status, Dynamics and Management. Research Report, English Nature, Peterborough.
[18]
Adams, J., van Wyk, E. and Riddin, T. (2016) First Record of Spartina Alterniflora in Southern Africa Indicates Adaptive Potential of This Saline Grass. Biological Invasions, 18, 2153-2158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-015-0957-5
[19]
Xu, G. and Zhuo, R. (1985) Preliminary Studies of Introduced Spartina Alterniflora Loisel in China. Journal of Nanjing University, 40, 212-225.
[20]
Mao, D., Liu, M., Wang, Z., Li, L., Man, W., Jia, M. and Zhang, Y. (2019) Rapid Invasion of Spartina Alterniflora in the Coastal Zone of Mainland China: Spatiotemporal Patterns and Human Prevention. Sensors, 19, Article 2308. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19102308
[21]
Chen, L., Wang, W., Zhang, Y. and Lin, G. (2009) Recent Progresses in Mangrove Conservation, Restoration and Research in China. Journal of Plant Ecology, 2, 45-54. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpe/rtp009
[22]
Wan, S., Qin, P., Liu, J. and Zhou, H. (2009) The Positive and Negative Effects of Exotic Spartina Alterniflora in China. Ecological Engineering, 35, 444-452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2008.05.020
[23]
Meng, W., Feagin, R.A., Innocenti, R.A., Hu, B., He, M. and Li, H. (2020) Invasion and Ecological Effects of Exotic Smooth Cordgrass Spartina Alterniflora in China. Ecological Engineering, 143, Article ID: 105670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2019.105670
[24]
An, S., Gu, B., Zhou, C., Wang, Z., Deng, Z., Zhi, Y., Li, H., Chen, L., Yu, D. and Liu, Y. (2007) Spartina Invasion in China: Implications for Invasive Species Management and Future Research. Weed Research, 47, 183-191. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3180.2007.00559.x
[25]
Chen, B., Liu, C. and Yuan, Y. (2020) Harm and Control Measures of Spartina Alterniflora Based on Bibliometrics. Acta Agriculturae Shanghai, 36, 90-95.
[26]
Strong, D.R. and Ayres, D.A. (2016) Control and Consequences of Spartina Spp. Invasions with Focus upon San Francisco Bay. Biological Invasions, 18, 2237-2246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-015-0980-6
[27]
Patten, K. (2003) Persistence and Non-Target Impact of Imazapyr Associated with Smooth Cordgrass Control in an Estuary. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 41, 1-6.
[28]
Mo, X., Dong, P., Xie, L., Xiu, Y., Wang, Y., Wu, B., Liu, J., Song, X., Zhang, M. and Zhang, Z. (2021) Effects of Imazapyr on Spartina Alterniflora and Soil Bacterial Communities in a Mangrove Wetland. Water, 13, Article 3277. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223277
[29]
Yuan, L., Zhang, L., Xiao, D. and Huang, H. (2011) The Application of Cutting plus Waterlogging to Control Spartina Alterniflora on Saltmarshes in the Yangtze Estuary, China. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 92, 103-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2010.12.019
[30]
Vila, M. and Weiner, J. (2004) Are Invasive Plant Species Better Competitors than Native Plant Species?—Evidence from Pair-Wise Experiments. Oikos, 105, 229-238. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0030-1299.2004.12682.x
[31]
Grevstad, F., Wecker, M. and Strong, D. (2004) Biological Control of Spartina. Proceedings of the Conference on Invasive Spartina, San Francisco, 8-9 November 2004.
[32]
Wundrow, E.J., Carrillo, J., Gabler, C.A., Horn, K.C. and Siemann, E. (2012) Facilitation and Competition among Invasive Plants: A Field Experiment with Alligatorweed and Water Hyacinth. PLOS ONE, 7, e48444. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048444
[33]
Wang, Q., Duarte, C., Song, L., Christakos, G., Agusti, S. and Wu, J. (2021) Effects of Ecological Restoration Using Non-Native Mangrove Kandelia Obovata to Replace Invasive Spartina Alterniflora on Intertidal Macrobenthos Community in Maoyan Island (Zhejiang, China). Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 9, Article 788. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9080788
[34]
Zhou, T., Liu, S., Feng, Z., Liu, G., Gan, Q. and Peng, S. (2015) Use of Exotic Plants to Control Spartina Alterniflora Invasion and Promote Mangrove Restoration. Scientific Reports, 5, Article No. 12980. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep12980
[35]
Tomlinson, P.B. (2016) The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139946575
[36]
Duke, N., Ball, M. and Ellison, J. (1998) Factors Influencing Biodiversity and Distributional Gradients in Mangroves. Global Ecology & Biogeography Letters, 7, 27-47. https://doi.org/10.2307/2997695
[37]
Alongi, D.M. (2008) Mangrove Forests: Resilience, Protection from Tsunamis, and Responses to Global Climate Change. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 76, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2007.08.024
[38]
Kathiresan, K. and Bingham, B.L. (2001) Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems. Advances in Marine Biology, 40, 81-251. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2881(01)40003-4
[39]
Zhou, Y., Huang, J., Han, W. and Yang, S. (2013) Spatial Distribution Patterns of Natural Rhizophora Stylosa Population. Guihaia, 33, 496-501.
[40]
Forestry Bureau of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (2021) Guangxi Mangrove Afforestation and Restoration Technical Guide (Trial).
[41]
Guangdong Provincial Department of Natural Resources and Guangdong Provincial Forestry Bureau (2022) Mangrove Ecological Restoration Technical Guide. Guangdong Province.
[42]
Fan, H. and Wang, W. (2017) Some Thematic Issues for Mangrove Conservation in China. Journal of Xiamen University (Natural Science), 56, 323-330.
[43]
Wang, L., Yu, H., Li, C. and Sun, N. (2018) Progress in Marine Ecosystem Restoration. Journal of Applied Oceanography, 37, 435-446.
[44]
Fan, H. and Mo, Z. (2018) The History, Achievements and Lessons Learnt for Mangrove Restoration in Guangxi, China. Guangxi Science, 25, 363-371.
[45]
State Oceanic Administration of China (2017) Technical Guideline for Mangrove Vegetation Restoration.
[46]
Evin, L.A. and Talley, T.S. (2000) Influences of Vegetation and Abiotic Environmental Factors on Salt Marsh Invertebrates. In: Weinstein, M.P. and Kreeger, D.A., Eds., Concepts and Controversies in Tidal Marsh Ecology, Springer, Dordrecht, 661-707. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47534-0_30
[47]
Borja, A., Franco, J. and Pérez, V. (2000) A Marine Biotic Index to Establish the Ecological Quality of Soft-Bottom Benthos within European Estuarine and Coastal Environments. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 40, 1100-1114. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-326X(00)00061-8
[48]
Lee, S. (2008) Mangrove Macrobenthos: Assemblages, Services, and Linkages. Journal of Sea Research, 59, 16-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seares.2007.05.002
[49]
Zhu, Z., Cozzoli, F., Chu, N., Salvador, M., Ysebaert, T., Zhang, L., Herman, P.M. and Bouma, T.J. (2016) Interactive Effects between Physical Forces and Ecosystem Engineers on Seed Burial: A Case Study Using Spartina Anglica. Oikos, 125, 98-106. https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.02340
[50]
Choi, C., Li, J. and Xue, W. (2020) China Coastal Waterbird Census Report (Jan. 2012-Dec. 2019). Hong Kong Bird Watching Society. Hong Kong.
[51]
Xia, S., Yu, X., Millington, S., Liu, Y., Jia, Y., Wang, L., Hou, X. and Jiang, L. (2017) Identifying Priority Sites and Gaps for the Conservation of Migratory Waterbirds in China’s Coastal Wetlands. Biological Conservation, 210, 72-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2016.07.025
[52]
Gan, X., Cai, Y., Choi, C., Ma, Z., Chen, J. and Li, B. (2009) Potential Impacts of Invasive Smooth Cordgrass Spartina Alterniflora Spread on Bird Communities at Chongming Dongtan, a Chinese Wetland of International Importance. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 83, 211-218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2009.03.026
[53]
Okoye, O.K., Li, H. and Gong, Z. (2020) Retraction of Invasive Spartina Alterniflora and Its Effect on the Habitat Loss of Endangered Migratory Bird Species and Their Decline in YNNR Using Remote Sensing Technology. Ecology and Evolution, 10, 13810-13824. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6971
[54]
Zhao, C., Li, J., Gong, L. and Luo, J. (2014) Effect of Spartina Alterniflora Invasion on Benthic Macro-Invertebrates in Coastal Wetlands of Beihai,Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Wetland Science, 12, 733-739.
[55]
Wan, H., Wang, Q., Jiang, D., Fu, J., Yang, Y. and Liu, X. (2014) Monitoring the Invasion of Spartina Alterniflora Using Very High Resolution Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Imagery in Beihai, Guangxi (China). The Scientific World Journal, 2014, Article ID: 638296. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/638296
[56]
Zhao, C., Liu, X., Bai, J., Lü, F. and Li, J. (2014) Impact of Spartina Alterniflora on Benthic Macro-Invertebrates Communities on Mangrove Wetland in Xicungang Estuary, Guangxi. Biodiversity Science, 22, 630-639.
[57]
Yang, J., Tang, J. and He, S. (1994) Characterization and Chemical Composition of Forest Trees and Their Interrelationships with Coastal Broken Soils and Tidal Flats Salt Soils in Beihai City, Guangxi, China. Chinese Journal of Soil Science, 25, 158-162.
[58]
National Forestry and Grassland Administration of China (2013) Technical Regulation for Control of Spartina Species by Mangroves.
[59]
Komiyama, A., Poungparn, S. and Kato, S. (2005) Common Allometric Equations for Estimating the Tree Weight of Mangroves. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 21, 471-477. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266467405002476
[60]
Komiyama, A., Ong, J.E. and Poungparn, S. (2008) Allometry, Biomass, and Productivity of Mangrove Forests: A Review. Aquatic Botany, 89, 128-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquabot.2007.12.006
[61]
Ardhana, I.P.G., Rimbawan, I.M.G.S., Cahyo, P.N., Fitriani, Y. and Rohani, S. (2018) The Distribution of Vertical Leaves and Leaves Biomass on Ten Mangrove Species at Ngurah Rai Forest Park, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia. Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity, 19, 918-926. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d190322
[62]
State Oceanic Administration of China (2005) Technical Specification for Eco-Monitoring of Mangrove Ecosystem.
[63]
Krauss, K.W., Lovelock, C.E., McKee, K.L., López-Hoffman, L., Ewe, S.M. and Sousa, W.P. (2008) Environmental Drivers in Mangrove Establishment and Early Development: A Review. Aquatic Botany, 89, 105-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquabot.2007.12.014
[64]
Peng, Y., Diao, J., Zheng, M., Guan, D., Zhang, R., Chen, G. and Lee, S.Y. (2016) Early Growth Adaptability of Four Mangrove Species under the Canopy of an Introduced Mangrove Plantation: Implications for Restoration. Forest Ecology and Management, 373, 179-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.04.044
[65]
Musilová, Z., Musil, P., Zouhar, J., Šenkỳřová, A., Pavón-Jordán, D. and Nummi, P. (2022) Changes in Wetland Habitat Use by Waterbirds Wintering in Czechia Are Related to Diet and Distribution Changes. Freshwater Biology, 67, 309-324. https://doi.org/10.1111/fwb.13842
[66]
Chen, Q., Xu, G., Wu, Z., Kang, P., Zhao, Q., Chen, Y., Lin, G. and Jian, S. (2020) The Effects of Winter Temperature and Land Use on Mangrove Avian Species Richness and Abundance on Leizhou Peninsula, China. Wetlands, 40, 153-166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-019-01159-6
[67]
Liu, J., Yi, C., Tang, S., Zhang, W., Wen, K., Qin, C., Huang, L., Liu, D. and Jiang, A. (2023) Impact of Coastal Island Restoration Engineering and Subsequent Tourism on Migratory Waterbirds: A 3-year Case from Southern China. Restoration Ecology, 31, e13974. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13974
[68]
Chen, G.C. and Ye, Y. (2011) Restoration of Aegiceras Corniculatum Mangroves in Jiulongjiang Estuary Changed Macro-Benthic Faunal Community. Ecological Engineering, 37, 224-228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2010.10.003
[69]
Kon, K., Kurokura, H. and Tongnunui, P. (2010) Effects of the Physical Structure of Mangrove Vegetation on a Benthic Faunal Community. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 383, 171-180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2009.11.015
[70]
Lyu, C., Zhang, S., Ren, X., Liu, M., Leung, K.K., He, T., Chen, Q. and Choi, C. (2023) The Effect of Spartina Alterniflora Eradication on Waterbirds and Benthic Organisms. Restoration Ecology, 31, e14023. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.14023
[71]
Neira, C., Grosholz, E.D., Levin, L.A. and Blake, R. (2006) Mechanisms Generating Modification of Benthos following Tidal Flat Invasion by a Spartina Hybrid. Ecological Applications, 16, 1391-1404. https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(2006)016[1391:MGMOBF]2.0.CO;2
[72]
Chen, G., Gao, M., Pang, B., Chen, S. and Ye, Y. (2018) Top-Meter Soil Organic Carbon Stocks and Sources in Restored Mangrove Forests of Different Ages. Forest Ecology and Management, 422, 87-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2018.03.044
[73]
Feng, J., Zhou, J., Wang, L., Cui, X., Ning, C., Wu, H., Zhu, X. and Lin, G. (2017) Effects of Short-Term Invasion of Spartina Alterniflora and the Subsequent Restoration of Native Mangroves on the Soil Organic Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorus Stock. Chemosphere, 184, 774-783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.06.060
