Background: Workers’ health condition is an important issue. It affects not only the well-being of workers but also the firms and society as a whole through medical costs and productivity losses due to absenteeism and presenteeism. Data andMethods: Data were obtained from 1136 employees at an operational site of a large corporation. The dataset contained both medical checkups and working record information. Health factors affecting long-term absence (over three days in three months) were analyzed. Logistic regression models and the procedure for selecting proper covariates based on likelihood test statistics and the Akaike information criterion were used. Results: Among health factors, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and blood sugar levels were important in the selected model. For HDL-C, the odds ratio (OR) based on one standard deviation difference was 0.75 with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of 0.59 - 0.95. For blood sugar, the OR was 1.20 with a 95% CI of 1.01 - 1.42. Improving HDL-C and blood sugar levels would reduce long-term absence by 25% and 20%, respectively. Conclusion: Controlling HDL-C and blood sugar levels is important to reduce long-term absenteeism. These factors can be improved by modifying eating habits. Since the operational site has its own company cafeterias, which most employees use, nutritional intervention is relatively easy with little or no cost. It may be worthwhile to implement nutritional intervention, especially for patients with low HDL-C or high blood sugar levels. Limitations: The results of this study were based on one operational site of a corporation. The employees were mainly operators working inside the building. The results may be different from other types of jobs and working conditions, such as fieldwork. Analyses of different types of jobs and working conditions are necessary.
References
[1]
International Labour Organization (ILO) (2023) Safety and Health at Work.
https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/safety-and-health-at-work/home/lang--en/index.htm#:~:text=The%20ILO%20aims%20to%20create%20worldwide%20awareness%20of,at%20all%20levels.%20Decent%20work%20is%20safe%20work
[2]
International Labour Organization (ILO) (2023) International Labour Standards on Occupational Safety and Health.
https://www.ilo.org/global/standards/subjects-covered-by-international-labour-standards/occupational-safety-and-health/lang--en/index.htm
[3]
World Health Organization (WHO) (2017) Protecting Workers’ Health.
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/protecting-workers'-health
[4]
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2022) Workplace Health Promotion.
https://www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/resources/publications/factsheets/workplace-health.htm
[5]
Japan Industrial Safety and Health Association (2021) Statistics of Workers’ Health Condition in Japan, 2020.
https://www.jisha.or.jp/english/statistics/health_in_detail_2020.html
[6]
Global Council for Happiness and Wellbeing (2019) Global Happiness and Well-Being Policy Report 2019.
https://www.happinesscouncil.org/report/2019/global-happiness-and-well-being-policy-report
[7]
Ose, S.O. (2005) Working Conditions, Compensation and Absenteeism. Journal of Health Economics, 24, 161-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2004.07.001
[8]
Kuroda, S. (2018) Health Capital Investment and Productivity. Japanese Journal of Labour Studies, 605, 30-48. (In Japanese with English Abstract)
[9]
Thornton, J. (2002) Estimating a Health Production Function for the US: Some New Evidence. Applied Economics, 34, 59-62.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840010025650
[10]
Boles, M., Pelletier, B. and Wendy, L. (2004) The Relationship between Health Risks and Work Productivity. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46, 737-745. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.jom.0000131830.45744.97
[11]
Davis, K., Collins, S.R., Doty, M.M., Ho, A. and Holmgren, A.L. (2005) Health and Productivity among U.S. Workers. Commonwealth Fund, Issue Brief.
https://www.commonwealthfund.org/sites/default/files/documents/___media_files_publications_issue_brief_2005_aug_health_and_productivity_among_u_s__workers_856_davis_hlt_productivity_usworkers_pdf.pdf
[12]
Loeppke, R., Taitel, M., Richling, D., Parry, T., Kessler, R.C., Hymel, P. and Konicki, D. (2007) Health and Productivity as a Business Strategy. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 49, 712-721.
https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0b013e318133a4be
[13]
Ron Goetzel, R.Z., Shechter, D., Ozminkowski, R.J., Marmet, P.F., Tabrizi, M.J. and Roemer, E.C. (2007) Promising Practices in Employer Health and Productivity Management Efforts: Findings from a Benchmarking Study. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 49, 111-130.
https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0b013e31802ec6a3
[14]
Loeppke, R., Taitel, M., Haufle, V., Parry, T., Kessler, R.C. and Jinnett, K. (2009) Health and Productivity as a Business Strategy: A Multiemployer Study. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 51, 411-428.
https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0b013e3181a39180
[15]
Mujan, I., Andelkovic, A.S., Muncan, V., Kljajic, M. and Ruzic, D. (2019) Influence of Indoor Environmental Quality on Human Health and Productivity—A Review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 217, 646-657.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.307
[16]
Ullah, S., Malik, M.N. and ul Hassan, M. (2019) Impact of Health on Labour Productivity: Empirical Evidence from Pakistan. European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences, 8, 139-147.
[17]
Satyana, R.P.U., Uli, R.E., Magliano, D., Zomer, E., Liew, D. and Ademi, Z. (2020) Assessing the Impact of Smoking on the Health and Productivity of the Working Age Indonesian Population Using Modelling. BMJ Open, 10, e041832.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-041832
[18]
Siddique, H.M.A., Mohey-ud-din, G. and Kiani, A. (2020) Human Health and Worker Productivity: Evidence from Middle-Income Countries. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 14, 523-544.
[19]
Adhvaryu, A., Kala, N., Jameel, A.L. and Nyshadham, A. (2022) Management and Shocks to Worker Productivity. Journal of Political Economy, 130, 1-45.
https://doi.org/10.1086/717046
[20]
Magnavita, N. (2022) Headache in the Workplace: Analysis of Factors Influencing Headaches in Terms of Productivity and Health. International Journal Environmental Research and Public Health, 19, Article 3712.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063712
[21]
Mehmood, A., Siddique, H.M.A. and Ali, A. (2022) Impact of Health on Worker Productivity: Evidence from South Asia. MPRA (Munich Personal RePEc Archive).
https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/113557/
[22]
Roczniewska, M., Smoktunowicz, E., Calcagni, C.C., von Thiele Schwarz, U., Hasson, H. and Richter, A. (2022) Beyond the Individual: A Systematic Review of the Effects of Unit-Level Demands and Resources on Employee Productivity, Health, and Well-Being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 27, 240-257.
https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000311
[23]
Nagata, T., Mori, K., Ohtani, M., Nagata, M., Kajiki, S., Fujino, Y., et al. (2018) Total Health-Related Costs Due to Absenteeism, Presenteeism, and Medical and Pharmaceutical Expenses in Japanese Employers. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 60, e273-e280. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000001291
[24]
Ramasamy, A., Laliberté, F., Aktavoukian, S.A., Lejeune, D., DerSarkissian, M., et al. (2019) Direct and Indirect Cost of Obesity among the Privately Insured in the United States, A Focus on the Impact by Type of Industry. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 61, 877-886.
https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000001693
[25]
Gennep, S., Evers, S.W., Rietdijk, S.T., Gielen, M.E., de Boer, N.K.H. and Gecse, K.B. (2021) High Disease Burden Drives Indirect Costs in Employed Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients: The WORK-IBD Study. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, 27, 352-363. https://doi.org/10.1093/ibd/izaa082
[26]
Ademi, Z., Marquina, C., Zomer, E., Bailey, C., Owen, A., Pang, J., et al. (2020) The Economic Impact of Familial Hypercholesterolemia on Productivity. Journal of Clinical Lipidology, 14, 799-806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacl.2020.08.004
[27]
Cawley, J., Biener, A., Meyerhoefer, C., Ding, Y., Zvenyach, N.P.B., Smolarz, B.G., et al. (2021) Absenteeism Costs of Obesity in the United States, National and State-Level Estimates. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 63, 565-573.
https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000002198
[28]
Kocakulah, M.C., Kelley, A.G., Mitchell, K.M. and Ruggieri, M.P. (2016) Absenteeism Problems and Costs: Causes, Effects and Cures. International Business & Economics Research Journal, 15, 91-96. https://doi.org/10.19030/iber.v15i3.9673
[29]
Gianino, M.M., Politano, G., Scarmozzino, A., Stillo, M., Amprino, V., Di Carlo, S., et al. (2019) Cost of Sickness Absenteeism during Seasonal Influenza Outbreaks of Medium Intensity among Health Care Workers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16, Article 747.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16050747
[30]
Baicker, K., Cutler, D. and Song, Z. (2010) Workplace Wellness Programs Can Generate Savings. Health Affairs, 29, 304-311. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2009.0626
[31]
Verelst, F., Beutels, P., Hens, N. and Willem, L. (2021) Workplace Influenza Vaccination to Reduce Employee Absenteeism: An Economic Analysis from the Employers’ Perspective. Vaccine, 39, 2005-2015.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.02.020
[32]
Lawrance, N., Petrides, G. and Guerry, M.A. (2021) Predicting Employee Absenteeism for Cost Effective Interventions. Decision Support Systems, 147, Article ID: 113539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2021.113539
[33]
Howard, J.T. and Potter, L.B. (2014) An Assessment of the Relationships between Overweight, Obesity, Related Chronic Health Conditions and Worker Absenteeism. Obesity Research & Clinical Practice, 8, e1-e15.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orcp.2012.09.002
[34]
Keramat, S.A., Alam, K., Gow, J. and Biddle, S.J.H. (2020) Gender Differences in the Longitudinal Association between Obesity, and Disability with Workplace Absenteeism in the Australian Working Population. PLOS ONE, 15, e0233512.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233512
[35]
Hashikuchi, N. (2021) Research on the Effects of Psychological and Physical Factors on Workers’ Productivity. Master’s Thesis, Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto. (In Japanese with English Abstract)
[36]
Baker-McClearn, D., Greasley, K., Dale, J. and Griffit, F. (2010) Absence Management and Presenteeism: The Pressures on Employees to Attend Work and the Impact of Attendance on Performance. Human Resource Management Journal, 20, 311-328. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-8583.2009.00118.x
[37]
Marmot. M.M., Feeney, A. and Shipley, M. (1995) Sickness Absence as a Measure of Health Status and Functioning: From the UK Whitehall II Study. Journal of Epidemiology Community Health, 49, 124-130. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.49.2.124
[38]
Vernekar, P.P., Kalyani, S. and Cacodcar, J.A. (2019) A Cross-Sectional Study of Health Profile of IT Professionals in Goa. Epidemiology International, 2, 29-33.
https://doi.org/10.24321/2455.7048.201909
[39]
Hird, T.R., Zomer, E., Owen, A.J., Magliano, D.J., Liew, D. and Ademi, Z. (2019) Productivity Burden of Hypertension in Australia: A Life Table Modeling Study. Hypertension, 73, 777-784.
https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.118.12606
[40]
Whelton, S.P., McEvoy, J.W., Shaw, L., Psaty, B.M., Lima, J.A.C., Budoff, M., et al. (2020) Association of Normal Systolic Blood Pressure Level with Cardiovascular Disease in the Absence of Risk Factors. JAMA Cardiology, 5, 1011-1018.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2020.1731
[41]
Asakura, E., Ademi, Z., Liew, E. and Zomer, E. (2021) Productivity Burden of Hypertension in Japan. Hypertension Research, 44, 1524-1533.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41440-021-00731-0
[42]
Idham, A. (2022) Impact of Diabetes and Hypertension Control on Work Performance among Malaysian Employees. ResearchBerg Review of Science and Technology, 2, 1-15.
[43]
MacLeod, K.E., Ye, Z., Donald, B. and Wang, G. (2022) A Literature Review of Productivity Loss Associated with Hypertension in the United States. Population Health Management, 25, 297-308. https://doi.org/10.1089/pop.2021.0201
[44]
Sorato, M.M., Davari, M., Kebriaeezadeh, A., Sarrafzadegan, N. and Shibru, T. (2022) Paid and Unpaid Work Productivity Loss Associated with Treated Hypertension in Southern Ethiopia: A Patient-Level Analysis. Journal of Pharmaceutical Health Services Research, 13, 17-24. https://doi.org/10.1093/jphsr/rmab070
[45]
Bansode, B. and Jungari, S. (2019) Economic Burden of Diabetic Patients in India: A Review. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research & Reviews, 13, 2469-2472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2019.06.020
[46]
O’Connell, J.M. and Manson, S.M. (2019) Understanding the Economic Costs of Diabetes and Prediabetes and What We May Learn about Reducing the Health and Economic Burden of These Conditions. Diabetes Care, 42, 1609-1611.
https://doi.org/10.2337/dci19-0017
[47]
Pedron, S., Emmert-Fees, K., Laxy, M. and Schwettmann, L. (2019) The Impact of Diabetes on Labour Market Participation: A Systematic Review of Results and Methods. BMC Public Health, 19, Article No. 25.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6324-6
[48]
Oyando, R., Njoroge, M., Nguhiu, P., Sigilai, A., Kirui, F., Mbui, J., et al. (2020) Patient Costs of Diabetes Mellitus Care in Public Health Care Facilities in Kenya. International Journal of Health Planning Management, 35, 290-308.
https://doi.org/10.1002/hpm.2905
[49]
Lambert-Obry, V., Lafrance, J., Savoie, M. and Lachaine, J. (2022) The Impact of Hypoglycemia on Productivity Loss and Utility in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Treated with Insulin in Real-World Canadian Practice: Protocol for a Prospective Study. JMIR Research Protocol, 11, e35461. https://doi.org/10.2196/35461
[50]
Butt, M.D., Ong, S.C., Wahab, M.U., Rasool, M.F., Saleem, F., Hashmi, A., et al. (2022) Cost of Illness Analysis of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: The Findings from a Lower-Middle Income Country. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19, Article 12611. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912611
[51]
Ferrara, P., Di Laura, D., Cortesi, P.A. and Mantovani, L.G. (2021) The Economic Impact of Hypercholesterolemia and Mixed Dyslipidemia: A Systematic Review of Cost of Illness Studies. PLOS ONE, 16, e0254631.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254631
[52]
Lázaro, P., de Isla, L.P., Watts, G.F., Alonso, R., Norman, R., Muniz, O., et al. (2017) Cost-Effectiveness of a Cascade Screening Program for the Early Detection of Familial Hypercholesterolemia. Journal of Clinical Lipidology, 11, 260-271.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacl.2017.01.002
[53]
Bilitou, A., Were, J., Farrer, A., Rabe, A., Ming, S.W.Y., Haq, I., et al. (2022) Prevalence and Patient Outcomes of Adult Primary Hypercholesterolemia and Dyslipidemia in the UK: Longitudinal Retrospective Study Using a Primary Care Dataset from 2009 to 2019. ClinicoEconomics and Outcomes Research, 14, 189-203.
https://doi.org/10.2147/CEOR.S347085
[54]
Barrios, V., Castellanos, M., Campuzano Ruiz, R., Cerezo, J.F.G., Cabello, I.E., Gámez, J.M., et al. (2022) Treatment Patterns and Use of Healthcare Resources of Patients with Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease and Hypercholesterolemia and Patients with Familial Hypercholesterolemia in Spain: Protocol of the Reality Study. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, 9, Article 966049.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2022.966049
[55]
Nawata, K. (2022) Heart Diseases, Hypertension and Effects of Antihypertensive Medications: Is Hypertension a True Risk Factor of Heart Diseases? Frontiers in Public Health, 10, Article 929840. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.929840
[56]
Griffiths, W.E., Hill, R.C. and Pope, P.J. (1987) Small Sample Properties of Probit Model Estimators. Journal of American Statistical Association, 82, 929-937.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1987.10478519
[57]
Nawata, K. and McAleer, M. (2001) Size Characteristics of Tests for Sample Selection Bias: A Monte Carlo Comparison and Empirical Example. Econometric Reviews, 20, 105-112. https://doi.org/10.1081/ETC-100104082
[58]
GapIchino, A. and Moretti, E. (2009) Biological Gender Differences, Absenteeism, and the Earnings. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 1, 183-218.
https://doi.org/10.1257/app.1.1.183
[59]
Patel, V., Chesmore, A., Legner, C.M. and Pandey, S. (2022) Trends in Workplace Wearable Technologies and Connected-Worker Solutions for Next-Generation Occupational Safety, Health, and Productivity. Advanced Intelligent Systems, 4, Article ID: 2100099. https://doi.org/10.1002/aisy.202100099
[60]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022) Cholesterol Myths and Facts.
https://www.cdc.gov/cholesterol/myths_facts.htm
[61]
Japan Atherosclerosis Society (2022) Japan Atherosclerosis Society (JAS) Guidelines for Prevention of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Diseases 2022. (In Japanese)
https://www.j-athero.org/jp/wp-content/uploads/publications/pdf/GL2022_s/jas_gl2022_3_230210.pdf
[62]
Gordon, D.J., Knok, J., Probstfield, J.L., Superko, R. and Tyroler, H.A. (1986) High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol and Coronary Heart Disease in Hypercholesterolemic Men: The Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Prevention Trial. Circulation, 74, 1217-1225. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.74.6.1217
[63]
Ouimet, M., Barrett, T.J. and Fisher, E.A. (2019) HDL and Reverse Cholesterol Transport Basic Mechanisms and Their Roles in Vascular Health and Disease. Circulation Research, 124, 1505-1518.
https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.119.312617
[64]
Xu, C., Weng, Z., Zhang, L., Xu, J., Dahal, M. and Basnet, T.B. (2021) HDL Cholesterol: A Potential Mediator of the Association between Urinary Cadmium Concentration and Cardiovascular Disease Risk. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 208, Article ID: 111433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111433
[65]
Ghobadi, K., Eslami, A., Pirzadeh, A., Mazloomi, S.M. and Hosseini, F. (2022) Effects of the Nutritional Interventions in Improving Employee’s Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in the Workplace: A Systematic Review. Clinical Nutrition Open Science, 42, 73-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutos.2022.01.004
[66]
de Liz, S., Cardoso, A.L., Copetti, C.L.K., Hinnig, P.F., Vieira, F.G.K., da Silva, E.L., et al. (2020) Acaí (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) and Jucara (Euterpe edulis Mart.) Juices Improved HDL-c Levels and Antioxidant Defense of Healthy Adults in a 4-Week Randomized Cross-Over Study. Clinical Nutrition, 39, 3629-3636.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2020.04.007
[67]
Araki, E., Goto, A., Kondo, T., Noda, M., Noto, H., Origasa, H., et al. (2020) Japanese Clinical Practice Guideline for Diabetes 2019. Diabetology International, 11, 165-223. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13340-020-00439-5
[68]
Nawata, K. (2021) Estimation of Diabetes Prevalence, and Evaluation of Factors Affecting Blood Glucose Levels and Use of Medications in Japan. Health, 13, 1431-1451. https://doi.org/10.4236/health.2021.1312102
[69]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2023) Eat Well.
https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/managing/eat-well.html
[70]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2023) Get Active!
https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/managing/active.html
