Hydro-Alcoholic Leaf Extract and Fractions of Codiaeum variegatum (var. Mollucanum) Exhibited an Improved Anti-Amoebic and Moderate Anti-Oxidant Potential
Amoebiasis, classified as the third intestinal parasitic infection,
represents a public health problem in low-income countries where hygiene and
sanitation conditions are poor. With the resurgence of resistant pathogenic
strains as well as ancestral considerations in developing countries such as
Cameroon, many people rely on medicinal plants to treat a plethora of diseases.
This work aimed to highlight the anti-amoebicand
anti-oxidant potential of Codiaeum
variegatum extracts and fractions. The anti-amoebic potential of C. variegatum was assayed on the polyxenic culture of the clinical isolates of E. histolytica. Then, the anti-oxidant
potential of the ethanolic/hydroethanolic extracts and fractions was evaluated
through DPPHradical scavenging, iron reduction (FRAP), lipid
peroxidation inhibitory potential and total antioxidant capacity tests followed
by the determination of phenolic compound and flavonoid content. It was found
that the fractionation process decreased the amoebicidal
activities of C. variegatum leaf
extracts. However hydroethanolic extract (CI50: 10.08 ± 0.42, 5.18 ±
0.09, 5.18 ± 0.09 μg/mL respectively after 24, 48 and 72 hours) was more active
than ethanolic extract (CI50: 15.59 ± 6.17; 9.61 ± 2.37; 6.26 ± 3.22
μg/mL respectively after 24, 48 and 72 hours). Interestingly, the activities of
hydroethanolic extract were significantly
non-different compared to metronidazole CI50:
8.42 ± 0.44, 6.45 ± 0.22 and 3.42 ± 0.33μg/mL, respectively after 24, 48 and 72 hours). Ethanolic
extract and EF5 showed higher Phenolic compound contents and higher antioxidant
activity than hydroethanolic extract and other fractions through DPPHradical scavenging power (EC50 = 311.50 ± 4.12
References
[1]
WHO (1997) Amebiasis. Weekly Epidermiological Record, 72, 97-100.
[2]
Ghenghesh, K., Ghanghish, K., BenDarif, E., Shembesh, K. and Franka, E. (2016) Prevalence of Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, and Cryptosporidium Spp. in Libya: 2000-2015. The Libyan Journal of Medicine, 11, Article 32088.
https://doi.org/10.3402/ljm.v11.32088
[3]
Tharmaratnam, T., Kumanan, T., Iskandar, M.A., D’Urzo, K., Gopee-Ramanan, P., Loganathan, M., Tabobondung, T., Tabobondung, T.A., Sivagurunathan, S., Patel, M. and Tobbia, I. (2020) Entamoeba histolytica and Amoebic Liver Abscess in Northern Sri Lanka: A Public Health Problem. Tropical Medicine and Health, 48, Article No. 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-020-0193-2
[4]
Silva, M.T., Santana, J.V, Bragagnoli, G., Marinho, A.M. and Malagueno, E. (2014) Prevalence of Entamoeba histolytica/Entamoeba dispar in the City of Campina Grande, in Northeastern Brazil. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 56, 451-454. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 25229229
[5]
Pechangou, N.S., Upninder, K., Kapil, G., Rakesh, S. and Moundipa, F.P. (2015) Molecular Differentiation of Entamoeba Spp. Isolated from Cameroonian Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infected and Uninfected Patient. Journal of Parasitology and Vector Biology, 7, 139-150.
[6]
Siqueira-Neto, J.L., Debnath, A., McCall, L.I., Bernatchez, J.A., Ndao, M., Reed, S.L. and Rosenthal, P.J. (2018) Cysteine Proteases in Protozoan Parasites. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 12, e0006512.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0006512
[7]
Uribe-Querol, E. and Rosales, C. (2020) Immune Response to the Enteric Parasite Entamoeba histolytica. Physiology, 35, 244-260.
https://doi.org/10.1152/physiol.00038.2019
[8]
Dey, I. and Chadee, K. (2008) Prostaglandin E2 Produced by Entamoeba histolytica Binds to EP4 Receptors and Stimulates Interleukin-8 Production in Human Colonic Cells. Infection and Immunity, 76, 5158-5163. https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.00645-08
[9]
Diaz-Valencia, Y.K., Alca, J.J., Calori-Domingues, M.A., Zanabria-Galvez, S.J. and Cruz, S. (2018) Nutritional Composition, Total Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) of Different Colours. Nova Biotechnologica et Chimica, 17, 74-85. https://doi.org/10.2478/nbec-2018-0008
[10]
Torres, J., Mehandru, S., Colombel, J.F. and Peyrin-Biroulet, L. (2017) Crohn’s Disease. The Lancet, 389, 1741-1755.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31711-1
[11]
Hodgson, A., Wier, E.M., Fu, K., Sun, X., Yu, H., Zheng, W., Sham, H.P., Johnson, K., Bailey, S., Vallance, B.A. and Wan, F. (2015) Metalloprotease NleC Suppresses Host NF-κB/Inflammatory Responses by Cleaving p65 and Interfering with the p65/RPS3 Interaction. PLOS Pathogens, 11, e1004705.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1004705
[12]
Juan, C.A., Pérez de la Lastra, J.M., Plou, F.J. and Pérez-Lebeña, E. (2021) The Chemistry of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Revisited: Outlining Their Role in Biological Macromolecules (DNA, Lipids and Proteins) and Induced Pathologies. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22, Article 4642.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22094642
[13]
Marie, C. and Petri, W. (2014) Regulation of Virulence of Entamoeba histolytica. Annual Review Microbiology, 68, 493-520.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-micro-091313-103550
[14]
Cotton, J.A., Beatty, J.K. and Buret, A.G. (2011) Host Parasite Interactions and Pathophysiology in Giardia Infections. International Journal for Parasitology, 41, 925-933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2011.05.002
[15]
Christensen, H. and Hermann, M. (2012) Immunological Response as a Source to Variability in Drug Metabolism and Transport. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 3, Article 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2012.00008
[16]
Kuete, V. and Efferth, T. (2010) Cameroonian Medicinal Plants: Pharmacology and Derived Natural Products. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 1, Article 123.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2010.00123
[17]
Mfotie Njoya, E., Weber, C., Hernandez-Cuevas, N.A., Hon, C.C., Janin, Y., Kamini, M.F.G., Moundipa, P.F. and Guillén, N. (2014) Bioassay-Guided Fractionation of Extracts from Codiaeum variegatum against Entamoeba histolytica Discovers Compounds That Modify Expression of Ceramide Biosynthesis Related Genes. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 8, e2607.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002607
[18]
Moundipa, P.F., Flore, K.G.M., Bilong Bilong, C.F. and Bruchhaus, I. (2005) In Vitro Amoebicidal Activity of Some Medicinal Plants of the Bamun Region (Cameroon). African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines, 2, 113-121. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v2i2.31109
[19]
Moshi, M. and Kagashe, G. (2004) A Study of the Effect of Extracts of Codiaeum Variegatum (L.) A. Juss on Picrotoxin-Induced Convulsions in Mice. Tanzania Medical Journal, 19, e39192. https://doi.org/10.4314/tmj.v19i1.39192
[20]
Pechangou, N.S., Mfotie, N.F., Njayou, F.N., Kapil, G., Rakesh, S. and Moundipa, F.P. (2022) The Aqueous Extract of Codiaeum variegatum and Its Fractions Exhibit in Vitro Antiparasitic Activity against Giardia lamblia and Trichomonas vaginalis. International Journal of Microbiology Research and Reviews, 11, 1-8.
[21]
Pechangou, S.N., Enang, B.E., Ngohoba, V.S., Njoya, E.M., Njayou, F.N. and Moundipa, P.F. (2022) Crude Extracts of Codiaeum Variegatum Stem Exhibit Potent Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities in Vitro. Journal of Exploratory Research in Pharmacology. https://doi.org/10.14218/JERP.2022.00039
[22]
Nam, T.G., Lim, T.G., Lee, B.H., Lim, S., Kang, H., Eom, S.H., Yoo, M., Jang, H.W. and Kim, D.O. (2017) Comparison of Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Flavonoid-Rich Common and Tartary Buckwheat Sprout Extracts in Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated RAW 264.7 and Peritoneal Macrophages. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2017, Article ID: 9658030. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/9658030
[23]
Saffoon, N., Uddin, R., Subhan, N., Hossain, H., Reza, H. M. and Alam, M.A. (2014) In Vitro Anti-Oxidant Activity and HPLC-DAD System Based Phenolic Content Analysis of Codiaeum variegatum Found in Bangladesh. Advanced Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 4, 533-541. https://doi.org/10.5681/apb.2014.079
[24]
Njoya, E.M., Kamini, M.F.G., Abia, W.A., Pechangou, S.N., Njayou, F.N., Tchana, A.N. and Moundipa, P.F. (2018). Acute and Sub-Chronic Toxicity Evaluation of the Aqueous Extract of Codiaeum variegatum Leaves on Wistar albino Rodents of Both Sexes. Journal of Complementary Medicine Research, 7, 108-114.
https://doi.org/10.5455/jcmr.20170412114130
[25]
Parija, S.C. and Rao, R.S. (1995) Stool Culture as a Diagnostic Aid in the Detection of Entamoeba histolytica in the Faecal Specimens. Journal of Pathology & Microbiology, 38, 359-363.
[26]
Pechangou, N.S., Moundipa, F.P. and Shegal, R. (2014) In Vitro Susceptibilities of the Clinical Isolate of Entamoeba histolytica to Euphobia hirta (Euphobiaceae) Aqueous Extract and Fractions. African Journal Research, 8, 3354-3356.
https://doi.org/10.5897/AJMR2014.6929
[27]
Chitravanshi, V.C., Singh, A.P., Ghoshal, S.B.N., Krishna, P., Srivastava, P., Landon, J.S. (1992) Therapeutic Action of Nyctanthes Arbor-Tristis against Coecal Amoebiasis of Rat. International Journal of Pharmacognosy, 30, 71-75.
https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209209054637
[28]
Bansal, S.K. (1987) Carbohhydrate metabolism in the Rat Peritonéal Macrophages. Journal of Biosciences, 12, 415-420. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02898591
[29]
Patil, A.P., Patil, V.V. and Patil, V.R. (2009) In Vitro Free Radicals Scavenging Activity of Madhuca indica Gmel. Pharmacologyonline, 2, 1344-1352.
[30]
Zengin, G., Aktumsek, A., Guler, G.O., Cakmak, Y.S. and Yildiztugay, E. (2011) Antioxidant Properties of Methanolic Extract and Fatty Acid Composition of Centaurea urvillei DC. subsp. hayekiana Wagenitz. Records of Natural Products, 5, 123-132.
[31]
Su, X.Y., Wang, Z.Y. and Liu, J.R. (2009) In Vitro and in Vivo Antioxidant Activity of Pinus koraiensis Seed Extracts Containing Phenolic Compound. Food Chemistry, 117, 681-689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.04.076
[32]
Kar, B., Kumar, R.B., Karmakar, I., Dolai, N., Bala, A., Mazumder, U.K., et al. (2012) Antioxydant and in In-Vitro Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Mimusops elengi Leaves. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 2, 976-980.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S2221-1691(12)60346-3
[33]
Dhar, P., Tayade, A.B., Bajpai, P.K., Sharma, V.K., Das, S.K., Chaurasia, O.P., et al. (2012) Antioxidant Capacities and Total Polyphenol Contents of Hydroethanolic Extract of Phytococktail from Trans-Himalaya. Journal of Food Science, 77, C156-C161. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02523.x
[34]
Yasunaka, K., Abe, F., Nagayama, A., Okabe, H., Lozada-Perez, L., López-Villafranco, E., Muniz, E.E., Aguilar, A. and Reyes-Chilpa, R. (2005) Antibacterial Activity of Crude Extracts from Mexican Medicinal Plants and Purified Coumarins and Xanthones. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 97, 293-299.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.11.014
[35]
Léa, A., Berzerra, D.S., Lidia, R.D.C.H., Manoel, D.S.N., Maya, F.M.A., et al. (2021) Cytotoxicity and Inflammatory Mediator Release by Macrophages Exposed to Real Seal XT and Sealapex. Xpress. Brazilian Dental Journal, 32, 48-52.
https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-6440202103330
[36]
Krache, I., Boussoualim, N., Trabsa, H., Ouhida, S., Baghiani, A. and Arrar, L. (2018) Antioxidant, Antihemolytic, Antihyperuricemic, Antiinflammatory Activity of Algerian Germander Methanolic Extract. Annual Research & Review in Biology, 23, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.9734/ARRB/2018/38232
[37]
Elizondo Luévano, J.H., Castro, R.R., Sánchez, G.E., Hernández, G.M.E. and Vargas, V. (2018) In Vitro Study of Antiamoebic Activity of Methanol Extracts of Argemone mexicana on Trophozoites of Entamoeba histolytica HM1-IMSS. Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Medical Microbiology, 2018, Article ID: 7453787.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7453787
[38]
Kabbashi, A.S., Koko, W.S., Mohammed, S.E.A., Musa, N., Osman, E.E., Dahab, M.M., Fadul Allah, E.F.F., Mohammed, A.K.H. (2014) In Vitro Amoebicidal, Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activities of the Plants Adansonia digitata and Cucurbit maxima. Advancement in Medicinal Plant Research, 2, 50-57.
[39]
Cimanga, K.R., Makila, B.M., Kambu, K.O., Tona, L.G., Vlietinck, A.J. and Pieters, L. (2018) In Vitro Amoebicidal Activity of Aqueous Extracts and Their Fractions From Some Medicinal Plants Used in Traditional Medicine as Antidiarrheal Agents in Kinshasa-Democratic Republic of Congo against Entamoeba histolytica. European Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 7, 103-104.
[40]
Moonah, S., Abhyankar, M., Haque, R. and Petri, W. (2014) The Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor Homolog of Entamoeba histolytica Binds to and Immunomodulates Host Macrophages. Infection and Immunity Journals, 82, 3523-3530.
https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.01812-14
[41]
Moonah, S., Jiang, N. and Petri, W. (2013) Host Immune Response to Intestinal Amebiasis. PLOS Pathogenes, 9, e1003489.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003489
[42]
Pineda, E., Encalada, R., Olivos-Garcia, A., Nequiz, M., Moreno-Sanchez, R. and Saavedra, E. (2013) The Bifunctional Aerobic Aldehyde-Alcohol Dehydrogenase Controls Ethanol and Acetate Production in Entamoeba histolytica under Condition. FEBS Letters, 587, 178-184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.febslet.2012.11.020
[43]
Tepe, B., Donmez, E., Unlu, M., Candan, F., Daferera, D., Vardar-Unlu, G., Polissiou, M. and Sokmen, A. (2004) Antimicrobial and Antioxidative Activities of the Essential Oils and Methanol Extracts of Salvia cryptantha (Montbret et Aucher ex Benth.) and Salvia multicaulis (Vahl). Food Chemistry, 84, 5119-525.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(03)00267-X
[44]
Liu, G.H., Zhang, E., Wong, G.T.F., Hyun, F. and Hahm, H.C. (2020) Factors Associated with Depression, Anxiety, and PTSD Symptomatology during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Clinical Implications for U.S. Young Adult Mental Health. Psychiatry Research, 290, e113172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113172
[45]
Bhakta, D. and Siva, R. (2012) Amelioration of Oxidative Stress in Bio-Membranes and Macromolecules by Non-Toxic Dye from Morinda tinctoria (Roxb.) Roots. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 50, 2062-2069.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2012.03.045
[46]
Moukette, B.M., Pieme, A.C., Njimou, J.R., Biapa, C.P.N., Bravi Marco, B. and Ngogang, J.Y. (2015) In Vitro Antioxidant Properties, Free Radicals Scavenging Activities of Extracts and Polyphenol Composition of a Non-Timber Forest Product used as Spice: Monodora myristica. Biological Research, 48, Article No. 15.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40659-015-0003-1
[47]
Piluzza, G. and Billitta, S. (2011) Correlations between Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Properties in Twenty-Four Plant Species of Traditional Ethnoveterinary Use in the Mediterranean Area. Pharmaceutical Biology, 49, 240-247.
https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2010.501083
[48]
Djova, S.V., Nyegue, M.A. and Etoa, F.X. (2018) The Anti-Arthritic and Anti-Inflammatory of Aqueous Pouder Bark of Anthocleista schweinfurthii Gilg (Loganiaceae). Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics, 8, 174-181.
https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v8i6-s.2212
[49]
Stagos, D. (2019) Antioxidant Activity of Polyphenolic Plant Extracts. Antioxidants, 9, Article 19. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9010019
[50]
Makhafola, T.J., Elgorashi, E.E., McGaw, L.J., Luc Verschaeve. L. and Jacobus, Eloff JN. (2016) The Correlation between Antimutagenic Activity and Total Phenolic Content of Extracts of 31 Plant Species with High Antioxidant Activity. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 16, Article No. 490.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-016-1437-x
