This study developed a psychometrically sound measure of disenchantment, which had five factors demonstrating the targeted negative affect experienced as a result of poor treatment at work. The five factors are: Inequity and Unfairness, Broken Promises and the Psychological Contract, Organisational Lying, Hypocrisy and Deceit, Bullying and Mistreatment, and Distrust. Theoretical implications suggest that future research should look to account for employee disenchantment as a specific negative effect when researching Counterwork Behaviour (CWB). Implications and limitations are acknowledged.
References
[1]
Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in Social Exchange. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 2, 267-299. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60108-2
[2]
Alder, G. S., Noel, T. W., & Ambrose, M. L. (2006). Clarifying the Effects of Internet Monitoring on Job Attitudes: The Mediating Role of Employee Trust. Information & Management, 43, 894-903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2006.08.008
[3]
Andersson, L. M. (1996). Employee Cynicism: An Examination Using a Contract Violation Framework. Human Relations, 49, 1395-1418. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872679604901102
[4]
Andersson, L. M., & Bateman, T. S. (1997). Cynicism in the Workplace: Some Causes and Effects. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 449-469. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199709)18:5<449::AID-JOB808>3.0.CO;2-O
[5]
Aryee, S., Budhwar, P. S., & Chen, Z. X. (2002). Trust as a Mediator of the Relationship between Organizational Justice and Work Outcomes: Test of a Social Exchange Model. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 267-285. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.138
[6]
Berry, C. M., Ones, D. S., & Sackett, P. R. (2007). Interpersonal Deviance, Organizational Deviance, and Their Common Correlates: A Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 410-424. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.2.410
[7]
Bies, R. J., & Tripp, T. M. (2005). The Study of Revenge in the Workplace: Conceptual, Ideological, and Empirical Issues. In S. Fox, & P. E. Spector (Eds.), Counterproductive Work Behavior: Investigations of Actors and Targets (pp. 65-81). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10893-003
[8]
Bowling, N. A., & Michel, J. S. (2011). Why Do You Treat Me Badly? The Role of Attributions Regarding the Cause of Abuse in Subordinates’ Responses to Abusive Supervision. Work and Stress, 25, 309-320. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2011.634281
[9]
Bunderson, J. S. (2001). How Work Ideologies Shape Psychological Contracts of Professional Employees: Doctors’ Responses to Perceived Breach. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22, 717-741. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.112
[10]
Caldwell, C., & Hayes, L. A. (2007). Leadership, Trustworthiness, and the Mediating Lens. Journal of Management Development, 26, 261-281. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621710710732155
[11]
Carrell, M. R., & Dittrich, J. E. (1978). Equity Theory: The Recent Literature, Methodological Considerations, and New Directions. Academy of Management Review, 3, 202-210. https://doi.org/10.2307/257661
[12]
Cartwright, S., & Holmes, N. (2006). The Meaning of Work: The Challenge of Regaining Employee Engagement and Reducing Cynicism. Human Resource Management Review, 16, 199-208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2006.03.012
[13]
Chiaburu, D. S., Peng, A. C., Oh, I. S., Banks, G. C., & Lomeli, L. C. (2013). Antecedents and Consequences of Employee Organizational Cynicism: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83, 181-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.03.007
[14]
Cohen-Charash, Y., & Spector, P. E. (2001). The Role of Justice in Organizations: A Meta-Analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 86, 278-321. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.2001.2958
[15]
Colquitt, J. A. (2001). On the Dimensionality of Organizational Justice: A Construct Validation of a Measure. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 386-400. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.386
[16]
Colquitt, J. A., Lepine, J. A., Piccolo, R. F., Zapata, C. P., & Rich, B. L. (2012). Explaining the Justice-Performance Relationship: Trust as Exchange Deepener or Trust as Uncertainty Reducer? Journal of Applied Psychology, 97, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025208
[17]
Colquitt, J. A., Scott, B. A., & LePine, J. A. (2007). Trust, Trustworthiness, and Trust Propensity: A Meta-Analytic Test of Their Unique Relationships with Risk Taking and Job Performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 909-927. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.909
[18]
Conway, N., & Coyle-Shapiro, J. A. M. (2012). The Reciprocal Relationship between Psychological Contract Fulfilment and Employee Performance and the Moderating Role of Perceived Organizational Support and Tenure. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 85, 277-299. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.2011.02033.x
[19]
Costanza, D. P., Badger, J. M., Fraser, R. L., Severt, J. B., & Gade, P. A. (2012). Generational Differences in Work-Related Attitudes: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Business and Psychology, 27, 375-394. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-012-9259-4
[20]
Davis, A. L., & Rothstein, H. R. (2006). The Effects of the Perceived Behavioural Integrity of Managers on Employee Attitudes: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Business Ethics, 67, 407-419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-006-9034-4
[21]
Dean, J. W., Brandes, P., & Dharwadkar, R. (1998). Organizational Cynicism. Academy of Management Review, 23, 341-352. https://doi.org/10.2307/259378
[22]
DeShong, H. L., Grant, D. M., & Mullins-Sweatt, S. N. (2015). Comparing Models of Counterproductive Workplace Behaviors: The Five-Factor Model and the Dark Triad. Personality and Individual Differences, 74, 55-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.10.001
[23]
Deutsch, M. (1958). Trust and Suspicion. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2, 265-279. https://doi.org/10.1177/002200275800200401
[24]
Dietz, G., & Hartog, D. N. D. (2006). Measuring Trust inside Organisations. Personnel Review, 35, 557-588. https://doi.org/10.1108/00483480610682299
[25]
Einarsen, S., & Raknes, B. I. (1997). Harassment in the Workplace and the Victimization of Men. Violence and Victims, 12, 247-263. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.12.3.247
[26]
Fein, S., & Hilton, J. L. (1994). Judging Others in the Shadow of Suspicion. Motivation and Emotion, 18, 167-198. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02249398
[27]
Fida, R., Paciello, M., Tramontano, C., Barbaranelli, C., & Fontaine, R. G. (2012). The Role of Irritability in the Relation between Job Stressors, Emotional Reactivity, and Counterproductive Work Behavior. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 23, 31-47. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2012.713550
[28]
Fida, R., Paciello, M., Tramontano, C., Fontaine, R. G., Barbaranelli, C., & Farnese, M. L. (2015). An Integrative Approach to Understanding Counterproductive Work Behavior: The Roles of Stressors, Negative Emotions, and Moral Disengagement. Journal of Business Ethics, 130, 131-144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2209-5
[29]
Forret, M., & Love, S. M. (2008). Employee Justice Perceptions and Coworker Relationships. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 29, 248-260. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437730810861308
[30]
Fox, S., Spector, P. E., & Miles, D. (2001). Counterproductive Work Behavior (CWB) in Response to Job Stressors and Organizational Justice: Some Mediator and Moderator Tests for Autonomy and Emotions. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 59, 291-309. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.2001.1803
[31]
Govier, T. (1994). An Epistemology of Trust. International Journal of Moral and Social Studies, 8, 155-174.
[32]
Greenberg, J. (1990). Employee Theft as a Reaction to Underpayment Inequity: The Hidden Cost of Pay Cuts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 561-568. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.75.5.561
[33]
Hekman, D., Bigley, G., Steensma, H., & Hereford, J. (2009). Combined Effects of Organizational and Professional Identification on the Reciprocity Dynamic for Professional Employees. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 506-526. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2009.41330897
[34]
Holland, P. J., Cooper, B., & Heckland, R. (2015). Electronic Monitoring in the Workplace: The Effects on Trust in Management, and the Moderating Role of Occupational Type. Electronic Monitoring and Surveillance, 44, 161-175. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-11-2013-0211
[35]
Huff, L., & Kelley, L. (2003). Levels of Organizational Trust in Individualist versus Collectivist Societies: A Seven-Nation Study. Organization Science, 14, 81-90. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.14.1.81.12807
[36]
Jensen, J. M., & Raver, J. L. (2012). When Self-Management and Surveillance Collide: Consequences for Employees’ Organizational Citizenship and Counterproductive Work Behaviors. Group & Organization Management, 37, 308-346. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601112445804
[37]
Jensen, J. M., Opland, R. A., & Ryan, A. M. (2010). Psychological Contracts and Counterproductive Work Behaviors: Employee Responses to Transactional and Relational Breach. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25, 555-568. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-009-9148-7
[38]
Jones, D. A. (2009). Getting Even with One’s Supervisor and One’s Organization: Relationships among Types of Injustice, Desires for Revenge, and Counterproductive Work Behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30, 525-542. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.563
[39]
Kickul, J., Lester, S. W., & Finkl, J. (2002). Promise Breaking during Radical Organizational Change: Do Justice Interventions Make a Difference? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 469-488. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.151
[40]
Korczynski, M. (2000). The Political Economy of Trust. Journal of Management Studies, 37, 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6486.00170
[41]
Lewis, J. D., & Weigert, A. (1985). Trust as a Social Reality. Social Forces, 63, 967-985. https://doi.org/10.2307/2578601
[42]
Lind, E. A. (2001). Fairness Heuristic Theory: Justice Judgments as Pivotal Cognitions in Organizational Relations. In J. Greenberg, & R. Cropanzano (Eds.), Advances in Organizational Justice (pp. 56-88). Stanford University Press.
[43]
Lind, E. A., & Tyler, T. R. (1988). The Social Psychology of Procedural Justice. Plenum. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2115-4
[44]
Lutgen-Sandvik, P., Tracy, S. J., & Alberts, J. K. (2007). Burned by Bullying in the American Workplace: Prevalence, Perception, Degree and Impact. Journal of Management Studies, 44, 837-862. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2007.00715.x
[45]
Martinko, M. J., Gundlach, M. J., & Douglas, S. C. (2002). Toward an Integrative Theory of Counterproductive Work Behavior: A Causal Reasoning Perspective. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 10, 36-50. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2389.00192
[46]
Mayer, R. C., & Gavin, M. B. (2005). Trust in Management and Performance: Who Minds the Shop While the Employees Watch the Boss? Academy of Management Journal, 48, 874-888. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2005.18803928
[47]
Mayer, R. C., Davis, J. H., & Schoorman, F. D. (1995). An Integrative Model of Organizational Trust. Academy of Management Review, 20, 709-734. https://doi.org/10.2307/258792
[48]
McCullough, M. E., Bellah, C. G., Kilpatrick, S. D., & Johnson, J. L. (2001). Vengefulness: Relationships with Forgiveness, Rumination, Well-Being, and the Big Five. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 601-610. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201275008
[49]
McEvily, B., Perrone, V., & Zaheer, A. (2003). Trust as an Organizing Principle. Organization Science, 14, 91-103. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.14.1.91.12814
[50]
McKnight, D. H., Cummings, L. L., & Chervany, N. L. (1998). Initial Trust Formation in New Organizational Relationships. Academy of Management Review, 23, 473-490. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1998.926622
[51]
Meier, L. L., & Spector, P. E. (2013). Reciprocal Effects of Work Stressors and Counterproductive Work Behavior: A Five-Wave Longitudinal Study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 529-539. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031732
[52]
Mitchell, M. S., & Ambrose, M. L. (2012). Employees’ Behavioral Reactions to Supervisor Aggression: An Examination of Individual and Situational Factors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97, 1148-1170. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029452
[53]
Moore, C., Detert, J. R., Klebe Treviño, L., Baker, V. L., & Mayer, D. M. (2012). Why Employees Do Bad Things: Moral Disengagement and Unethical Organizational Behavior. Personnel Psychology, 65, 1-48. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2011.01237.x
[54]
Penney, L. M., Hunter, E. M., & Perry, S. J. (2011). Personality and Counterproductive Work Behaviour: Using Conservation of Resources Theory to Narrow the Profile of Deviant Employees. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84, 58-77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.2010.02007.x
[55]
Perez, L. F. R., & Robson, K. (1999). Ritual Legitimation, De-Coupling and the Budgetary Process: Managing Organizational Hypocrisies in a Multinational Company. Management Accounting Research, 10, 383-407. https://doi.org/10.1006/mare.1999.0114
[56]
Philippe, T. W., College, S. P., Koehler, J. W., & Florida, S. (2005). A Factor Analytical Study of Perceived Organizational Hypocrisy. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 70, 13-21.
[57]
Reichers, A. E., Wanous, J. P., & Austin, J. T. (1997). Understanding and Managing Cynicism about Organizational Change. The Academy of Management Executive, 11, 48-59. https://doi.org/10.5465/ame.1997.9707100659
[58]
Robinson, S. L., & Bennett, R. J. (1995). A Typology of Deviant Workplace Behaviors: A Multidimensional Scaling Study. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 555-572. https://doi.org/10.5465/256693
[59]
Robinson, S. L., & Morrison, E. W. (2000). The Development of Psychological Contract Breach and Violation: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 525-546. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-1379(200008)21:5<525::AID-JOB40>3.0.CO;2-T
[60]
Robinson, S. L., & Rousseau, D. M. (1994). Violating the Psychological Contract: Not the Exception but the Norm. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15, 245-259. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030150306
[61]
Roch, S. G., & Shanock, L. R. (2006). Organizational Justice in an Exchange Framework: Clarifying Organizational Justice Distinctions. Journal of Management, 32, 299-322. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206305280115
[62]
Rosen, C., Chang, C., Johnson, R., & Levy, P. (2009). Perceptions of the Organizational Context and Psychological Contract Breach: Assessing Competing Perspectives. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 108, 202-217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.07.003
[63]
Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 1-36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
[64]
Rousseau, D. M. (1989). Psychological and Implied Contracts in Organizations. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 2, 121-139. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01384942
[65]
Shahzad, A., & Mahmood, Z. (2012). The Mediating-Moderating Model of Organizational Cynicism and Workplace Deviant Behavior: (Evidence from Banking Sector in Pakistan). Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 12, 580-588.
[66]
Shockley-Zalabak, P., Ellis, K., & Cesaria, R. (2000). Highlights from Measuring Trust: A Diagnostic Survey and International Indicator. In Communication World (August-September), 7-9.
[67]
Spector, P. E., Fox, S., Penney, L. M., Bruursema, K., Goh, A., & Kessler, S. (2006). The Dimensionality of Counterproductivity: Are All Counterproductive Behaviors Created Equal? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68, 446-460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2005.10.005
[68]
Stecher, M. D., & Rosse, J. G. (2005). The Distributive Side of Interactional Justice: The Effects of Interpersonal Treatment on Emotional Arousal. Journal of Managerial Issues, 17, 229-246.
[69]
Tekleab, A. G., & Taylor, S. M. (2003). Aren’t There Two Parties in an Employment Relationship? Antecedents and Consequences of Organization-Employee Agreement on Contract Obligations and Violations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, 585-608. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.204
[70]
Thau, S., & Mitchell, M. S. (2010). Self-Gain or Self-Regulation Impairment? Tests of Competing Explanations of the Supervisor Abuse and Employee Deviance Relationship through Perceptions of Distributive Justice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 1009-1031. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020540
[71]
Treglown, L., Palaiou, K., Zarola, T., & Furnham, A. (2016). The Dark Side of Resilience and Burnout: A Moderation-Mediation Model. PLOS ONE, 11, e0156279. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0156279
[72]
Turnley, W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2000). Re-Examining the Effects of Psychological Contract Violations: Unmet Expectations and Job Dissatisfaction as Mediators. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 25-42. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200002)21:1<25::AID-JOB2>3.0.CO;2-Z
[73]
Tyler, T. R., & Lind, E. A. (1992). A Relational Model of Authority in Groups. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 25 pp. 115-191). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60283-X
[74]
Wei, F., & Si, S. (2013). Tit for Tat? Abusive Supervision and Counterproductive Work Behaviors: The Moderating Effects of Locus of Control and Perceived Mobility. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 30, 281-296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-011-9251-y
[75]
Wilkerson, J. M. (2002). Organizational Cynicism and Its Impact on Human Resource Management. In G. R. Ferris, M. R. Buckley, & D. B. Fedor (Eds.), Human Resources Management: Perspectives, Context, Functions, and Outcomes (pp. 532-546). Prentice Hall.
[76]
Wright, P. M., Gardner, T. M., & Moynihan, L. M. (2003). The Impact of HR Practices on the Performance of Business Units. Human Resource Management Journal, 13, 21-36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-8583.2003.tb00096.x
[77]
Yperen, N. W., Hagedoorn, M., & Geurts, S. A. (1996). Intent to Leave and Absenteeism as Reactions to Perceived Inequity: The Role of Psychological and Social Constraints. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 69, 367-372. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1996.tb00622.x
[78]
Zhang, Y., & Liao, Z. (2015). Consequences of Abusive Supervision: A Meta-Analytic Review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 32, 959-987. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-015-9425-0
[79]
Zhao, H. A. O., Wayne, S. J., Glibkowski, B. C., & Bravo, J. (2007). The Impact of Psychological Contract Breach on Work-Related Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis. Personnel Psychology, 60, 647-680. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00087.x
[80]
Zhou, Z. E., Meier, L. L., & Spector, P. E. (2014). The Role of Personality and Job Stressors in Predicting Counterproductive Work Behavior: A Three-Way Interaction. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 22, 286-296. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsa.12077
