A Review on the Impact of the Plant Bioactive Compound β-Glucans as Phytochemicals for Boosting Human and Animals’ Immune Response—β-Glucans as Immunostimulants
The influence of food and nutrition on health and
immunity for both human and animals are being demonstrated. Phytochemicals are
natural compounds present in cereals, beans,
fruits, vegetable, and other plants, believed to enhance immune response
for both human and animals. One of these phytochemicals is β-Glucans
that are heterogeneous polysaccharides consisted of branched long chains of
D-Glucose units present in cereals such as barley, wheat, and oats, and also
present in microbial cell walls for yeasts, fungi, bacteria, and algae. β-Glucans
extracted from cereals and mushroom were investigated for their positive impact on immunomodulation for
both human and animal health. These β-Glucans
proved to enhance immune system for innate response as the first defense
against microbial infection, toxins, and self-tumor cells, and also, enhance adaptive immune that also referred to
specific immunity as the second defense in response to antigen-specific
lymphocytes against microbial infection, toxins, and self-tumor cells.
References
[1]
Hart, D., Tirouvanziam, R., Laval, J., Greene, C.M., Habiel, D., Sharma, L., Yildirim, A. Ö., Dela Cruz, C. and Hogaboam, C.M. (2018) Innate Immunity of the Lung: From Basic Mechanisms to Translational Medicine. Journal of Innate Immunity, 10, 487-501. https://doi.org/10.1159/000487057
[2]
Bonilla, F.A. and Oettgen, H.C. (2010) Adaptive Immunity. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 125, S33-S40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2009.09.017
[3]
Wood, T.A. and Frenkel, E.P. (1967) The Atypical Lymphocyte. American Journal of Medicine, 42, 923-936. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(67)90073-3
[4]
Ahmed, R., Omidian, Z., Giwa, A., Cornwell, B., Cornwell, B., Majety, N., Bell, D.R., et al. (2019) A Public BCR Present in a Unique Dual-Receptor-Expressing Lymphocyte from Type 1 Diabetes Patients Encodes a Potent T Cell Autoantigen. Cell, 177, 1583-1599.e16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2019.05.007
[5]
Amer, A., Singh, G., Darke, C. and Colby, A.E. (1990) Spontaneous Lymphocyte Proliferation in Severe Periodontal Disease: Role of T and B Cells. Journal of Oral Pathology & Medicine, 19, 49-52.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0714.1990.tb00782.x
[6]
Rudolph, M.G., Stanfield, R.L. and Wilson, I.A. (2006) How TCRs Bind MHCs, Peptides, and Coreceptors. Annual Review of Immunology, 24, 419-466.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115658
[7]
Farhood, B., Najafi, M. and Mortezaee, K. (2019) CD8+ Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes in Cancer Immunotherapy: A Review. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 234, 8509-8521.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.27782
[8]
Erb, P., Meier, B., Matsunaga, T. and Feldmann, M. (1979) Nature of T-Cell Macrophage Interaction in Helper-Cell Induction in Vitro. II. Two Stages of T-Helper-Cell Differentiation Analyzed in Irradiation and Allophonic Chimeras. Journal Experimental Medicine, 149, 686-701. https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.149.3.686
[9]
Guggenheim, A.G., Wright, K.M. and Zwickey, H.L. (2014) Immune Modulation from Five Major Mushrooms: Application to Integrative Oncology. Integrative Medicine (Encinitas), 13, 32-44.
[10]
Zhu, F., Du, B. and Xu, B. (2015) β-Glucans from Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Characteristics, Physicochemical and Biological Activities. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 41, 165-173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2015.01.019
[11]
Kim, H.S, Hong, J.T., Kim, Y. and Han, S.-B. (2011) Stimulatory Effect of β-Glucans on Immune Cells. Immune Network, 11, 191-195.
https://doi.org/10.4110/in.2011.11.4.191
[12]
Brown, G.D. and Gordon, S. (2005) Immune Recognition of Fungal β-Glucans. Cell Microbiology, 7, 471-479. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-5822.2005.00505.x
[13]
Goodridge, H.S., Wolf, A.J. and Underhill, D.M. (2009) β-Glucan Recognition by the Innate Immune System. Immunology Review, 230, 38-50.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-065X.2009.00793.x
[14]
Chan, G.C.-F., Chan, W.K. and Sze, D.M.-Y. (2009) The Effects of β-Glucan on Human Immune and Cancer Cells. Journal of Hematology and Oncology, 2, Article No. 25. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-8722-2-25
[15]
Vetvicka, V. and Vetvickova, Y. (2020) Anti-Infectious and Anti-Tumor Activities of β-Glucans. Anicancer Research, 40, 3139-3145.
https://doi.org/10.21873/anticanres.14295
[16]
Sima, P., Vannucci, L. and Vetvicka, V. (2018) β-Glucans and Cholesterol (Review). International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 41, 1799-1808.
https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2018.3411
[17]
El Khoury, D., Cuda, C., Luhovy, B.L. and Anderson, G.H. (2012) Beta Glucan: Health Benefits in Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, 2012, Article ID: 851362. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/851362
[18]
Han, B., Baruah, K., Cox, E., Vanrompay, D. and Bossier, P. (2020) Structure-Functional Activity Relationship of β-Glucans from the Perspective of Immunomodulation: A Mini-Review. Frontiers in Immunology, 11, Article No. 658.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.00658
[19]
Maheshwari, G., Sowrirajan, S. and Joseph, B. (2017) Extraction and Isolation of β-Glucan from Grain Sources—A Review. Food Science, 82, 1535-1545.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.13765
[20]
Du, B., Meenu, M., Liu, H. and Xu, B. (2019) A Concise Review on the Molecular Structure and Function Relationship of β-Glucan. International journal of molecular Sciences, 20, Article No. 4032. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20164032
[21]
Havrlentová, M., Petruláková, Z., Burgárová, A., Gago, F., Hlinková, A. and Ernest Šturdík, E. (2011) Cereal β-Glucans and Their Significance for the Preparation of Functional Foods—A Review. Czech Journal of Food Science, 29, 1-14.
https://doi.org/10.17221/162/2009-CJFS
[22]
Murphy, E.A., Davis, J.M. and Carmichael, M.D. (2010) Immune Modulating Effects of β-Glucan. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care, 13, 656-661. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e32833f1afb
[23]
Tanioka, A., An, W.-W., Kuge, T., Tsubaki, K. and Nakaya, K. (2011) Barley Low Molecular Weight β-Glucan Potently Induces Maturation of Mouse Dendritic Cells. Anticancer Research, 31, 1647-1651.
[24]
Ahmad, A., Aajum, F.M., Zahoor, T., Naawaz, H., Raihan, S.M.R. and Ilshad, S.M.R. (2012) Beta Glucan: Available Functional Ingredient in Foods. Journal of Food Science, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 52, 201-212.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2010.499806
[25]
Turhan, M. and Gunasekaran, S. (2002) Kinetics of in Situ and in Vitro Gelatinization of Hard and Soft Wheat Starches during Cooking in Water. Journal of Food Engineering, 52, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0260-8774(01)00058-9
[26]
Wood, P.J., Siddiqui I.R. and Paton, D. (1978) Extraction of High-Viscosity Gums from Oats. Cereal Chemistry, 55, 1038-1049.
https://www.cerealsgrains.org/publications/cc/backissues/1978/Documents/CC1978a142.html
[27]
Ahluwalia, B. and Ellis, E.E. (1984) A Rapid and Simple Method of Determination of Starch and β-Glucan in Barley and Malt. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 90, 254-249. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1984.tb04267.x
[28]
Ahmed, A., Anjum, F.M., Zahoor, T., Nawaz, H. and Ahmed, Z. (2010) Extraction and Characterization of β-Glucan from Oat for Industrial Utilization. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 46, 304-309.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2010.01.002
[29]
Zheng, Z., Huang, Q. and Ling, C. (2019) Water-Soluble Yeast β-Glucan Fractions with Different Molecular Weights: Extraction and Separation by Acidolysis Assisted-Size Exclusion Chromatography and Their Association with Proliferative Activity. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 123, 269-279.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.11.020
[30]
Wright, W.F., Overman, S.B. and Ribes, J.A. (2011) (1–3)-β-D-Glucan Assay: A Review of Its Laboratory and Clinical Application. Laboratory Medicine, 42, 679-685.
https://doi.org/10.1309/LM8BW8QNV7NZBROG
https://www.scribd.com/document/146654928/1-3-%CE%B2-D-Glucan-Assay-a-review- of-its-laboratory-and-clinical-application-William-F-Wright
[31]
McCleary, B.V. and Draga, A. (2016) Measurement of β-Glucan in Mushrooms and Mycelial Products. Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL, 99, 364-373.
https://doi.org/10.5740/jaoacint.15-0289
[32]
Danielson, M.E., Dauth, R., Elmasry, N.A., Langeslay, R.R., Magee, A.S. and Will, P.M. (2010) Enzymatic Method to Measure, β-1,3-β-1,6-Glucan Content in Extracts and Formulated Products (GEM Assay). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58, 10305-10308. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf102003m
[33]
Nagaraja, P., Krishna, H., Shivakumar, A. and Shrestha, A.K. (2012) Development of Quantitative Enzymatic Method and Its Validation for the Assay of Glucose in Human Serum. Clinical Biochemistry, 45, 139-143.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2011.11.007
[34]
Hughes, J. and Grafenauer, S. (2021) Oat and Barley in the Food Supply and Use of Beta-Glucan Health Claims. Nutrients, 13, Article No. 2556.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13082556
[35]
Henrion, M., France, C., Lê, K.-A. and Lamothe, L. (2019) Cereal β-Glucans: The Impact of Processing and How It Affects Physiological Responses. Nutrients, 11, Article No. 1729. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11081729
[36]
Ahmad, A. Article No. Kaleem, M. (2018) β-Glucan as a Food Ingredient. In: Grumezescu, A.M. and Holban, A.M., Ed., Biopolymers for Food Design: Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Academic Press, Cambridge, Chapter 11, 351-381.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811449-0.00011-6
[37]
Pillai, R., Redmond, M. and Röding, J. (2005) Anti-Wrinkle Therapy: Significant New Findings in the Non-Invasive Cosmetic Treatment of Skin Wrinkles with Beta-Glucan. International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 27, 292.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-1318.2005.00268_3.x
[38]
Vetvicka, V., Vannucci, L., Sima, P. and Richter, J. (2019) Beta Glucan: Supplement or Drug? From Laboratory to Clinical Trials. Molecules, 24, Article No. 1251.
https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24071251
[39]
Bloomberg (2021, March 23) Beta-Glucan Market Worth $628.3 Million by 2026. Exclusive Report by Markets and Markets. Bloomberg.
https://www.bloomberg.com/press-releases/2021-03-23/beta-glucan-market-worth- 628-3-million-by-2026-exclusive-report-by-marketsandmarkets
[40]
Specht, C.A., Lee, C.K., Huang, H., Tipper, D.J., Shen, Z.T., Lodge, J.K., Leszyk, J., Ostroff, G.R. and Levitz, S.M. (2015) Protection against Experimental Cryptococcosis Following Vaccinination with Glucan Particles Containing Cryptococcus Alkaline Extracts. MBio, 6, Article ID: e01905. https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.01905-15
[41]
Malyarenko, O.S., Usoltseva, R.V., Zvyagintseva, T.N. and Ermakova, S.P. (2019) Laminaran from Brown Alga Dictyota dichotoma and Its Sulfated Derivative as Radioprotectors and Radiosensitizers in Melanoma Therapy. Carbohydrate Polymers, 206, 539-547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.11.008
[42]
Wesa, K.M., Cunningham-Rundles, S., Klimek, V.M., Vertosick, E., Coleton, M.I., Yeung, K.S., Lin, H., Nimer, S. and Cassileth, B.R. (2015) Maitake Mushroom Extract in Myelodysplastic Syndromes (MDS): A Phase II Study. Cancer Immunology, Immunotherapy, 64, 237-247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00262-014-1628-6
[43]
Aleem, E. (2013) β-Glucans and Their Applications in Cancer Therapy: Focus on Human Studies. Anti-Cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry, 13, 709-719.
https://doi.org/10.2174/1871520611313050005
https://www.scirp.org/(S(351jmbntvnsjt1aadkozje))/reference/referencespapers.aspx?referenceid=1219799.
[44]
Jawhara, S. (2020) How to Boost the Immune Defense Prior to Respiratory Virus Infections With the Special Focus on Coronavirus Infections. Gut Pathogens, 12, Article No. 47. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13099-020-00385-2
https://link.springer.com/journal/13099/volumes-and-issues/12-1
[45]
Lim, G.Y. (2022) Combination of Two β-Glucans Reduced Inflammatory Biomarkers in COVID-19 Patients—India Clinical Trial. Nutra Ingredients, USA.
https://www.nutraingredients-asia.com/Info/About-us2
