The current study aimed to optimize a green
synthesis procedure for fabricating biogenic silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using
an aqueous extract of Catha edulis (Qat; khat) leaves. The final product was
characterized using various analytical techniques. Parameters’
optimization including pH, contact time, temperature, and amount of leaf
extract were carried out. AgNPs formation was confirmed by UV-vis spectra at 403 nm, FT-IR, and XRD peaks. FTIR spectra showed the
presence of various biochemical metabolites which played a critical role in the bio-reduction, capping, and stabilization
of AgNPs. The biogenic AgNPs were spherical in shape with an average
size between 27 and 32 nm as estimated from XRD and SEM images. Biogenic AgNPs
showed significant activities against sensitive and multi-drug resistance Escherichia
coliand Staphylococcus aureus strains. In addition, the experimental results proved that AgNPs have
higher efficacy than antifungal drugs that are commonly used to treat Candida albicans oral infections.
References
[1]
Dadgostar, P. (2019) Antimicrobial Resistance: Implications and Costs. Infection and Drug Resistance, 12, 3903-3910. https://doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S234610
[2]
Roope, L.S., et al. (2019) The Challenge of Antimicrobial Resistance: What Economics Can Contribute. Science, 364, eaau4679. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau4679
[3]
Zhang, Q. and Zhang, C. (2020) Chronic Exposure to Low Concentration of Graphene Oxide Increases Bacterial Pathogenicity via the Envelope Stress Response. Environmental Science & Technology, 54, 12412-12422. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c04538
[4]
Almagor, J., et al. (2018) The Impact of Antibiotic Use on Transmission of Resistant Bacteria in Hospitals: Insights from an Agent-Based Model. PLoS ONE, 13, e0197111. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197111
[5]
Pristov, K. and Ghannoum, M. (2019) Resistance of Candida to Azoles and Echinocandins Worldwide. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 25, 792-798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2019.03.028
[6]
Luepke, K.H., et al. (2017) Past, Present, and Future of Antibacterial Economics: Increasing Bacterial Resistance, Limited Antibiotic Pipeline, and Societal Implications. Pharmacotherapy: The Journal of Human Pharmacology and Drug Therapy, 37, 71-84. https://doi.org/10.1002/phar.1868
[7]
Bonomo, R.A., et al. (2017) Gram-Negative Bacterial Infections: Research Priorities, Accomplishments, and Future Directions of the Antibacterial Resistance Leadership Group. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 64, S30-S35. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciw829
[8]
Trecarichi, E., et al. (2016) Haematologic Malignancies Associated Bloodstream Infections Surveillance (HEMABIS) Registry—Sorveglianza Epidemiologica Infezioni Funginein Emopatie Maligne (SEIFEM) Group, Italy. Bloodstream Infections Caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae in Onco-Hematological Patients: Clinical Impact of Carbapenem Resistance in a Multicentre Prospective Survey. American Journal of Hematology, 91, 1076-1081. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajh.24489
[9]
Córdoba, G., et al. (2017) Prevalence of Antimicrobial Resistant Escherichia coli from Patients with Suspected Urinary Tract Infection in Primary Care, Denmark. BMC Infectious Diseases, 17, Article No. 670. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-017-2785-y
[10]
Zhang, X., et al. (2019) Colistin Resistance Prevalence in Escherichia coli from Domestic Animals in Intensive Breeding Farms of Jiangsu Province. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 291, 87-90.
[11]
Elbediwi, M., et al. (2019) Global Burden of Colistin-Resistant Bacteria: Mobilized Colistin Resistance Genes Study (1980-2018). Microorganisms, 7, 461. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7100461
[12]
Guo, Y., et al. (2020) Prevalence and Therapies of Antibiotic-Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 10, 107. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2020.00107
[13]
Kobayashi, S.D., Malachowa, N. and DeLeo, F.R. (2015) Pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus Abscesses. The American Journal of Pathology, 185, 1518-1527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajpath.2014.11.030
[14]
Gandra, S., et al. (2019) The Mortality Burden of Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens in India: A Retrospective, Observational Study. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 69, 563-570. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciy955
[15]
Shittu, A.O., et al. (2018) Mupirocin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Africa: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control, 7, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-018-0382-5
[16]
Purrello, S., et al. (2016) Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections: A Review of the Currently Available Treatment Options. Journal of Global Antimicrobial Resistance, 7, 178-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgar.2016.07.010
[17]
Doernberg, S.B., et al. (2017) Gram-Positive Bacterial Infections: Research Priorities, Accomplishments, and Future Directions of the Antibacterial Resistance Leadership Group. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 64, S24-S29. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciw828
[18]
Cheng, M.-F., et al. (2005) Risk Factors for Fatal Candidemia Caused by Candida albicans and Non-Albicans Candida Species. BMC Infectious Diseases, 5, Article No. 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-5-22
[19]
Theuretzbacher, U., et al. (2020) The Global Preclinical Antibacterial Pipeline. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 18, 275-285. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-019-0288-0
[20]
Qais, F.A., et al. (2019) Antibacterial Effect of Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized Using Murraya koenigii (L.) against Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens. Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications, 2019, Article ID: 4649506. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/4649506
[21]
Monowar, T., et al. (2018) Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized by Using the Endophytic Bacterium Pantoea ananatis Are Promising Antimicrobial Agents against Multidrug Resistant Bacteria. Molecules, 23, 3220. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23123220
[22]
Numan, A.A., Ahmed, M., Mohammed, S.O., Al-Qaubti, M., Al-Tahami, K.A. and Halboup, A. (2021) Parameters’ Optimization for the Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles from Ziziphus spina-christi Leaves and Their Antibacterial Activities against Antibiotic Sensitive and Resistant Bacteria. International Journal of Nanotechnology and Allied Science, 5, 10-25. https://journals.psmpublishers.org/index.php/ijnas/article/view/594
[23]
Abdelghany, T.M., Al-Rajhi, A.M.H., Al Abboud, M.A., et al. (2018) Recent Advances in Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles and Their Applications: About Future Directions. A Review. BioNanoScience, 8, 5-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12668-017-0413-3
[24]
Abdelghany, T.M., Abdel, R., Shater, M., Al Abboud, M.A. and Alawlaqi, M.M. (2013) Silver Nanoparticles Biosynthesis by Fusarium moniliforme and Their Antimicrobial Activity against Some Food-Borne Bacteria. Mycopathologia, 11, 1-7.
[25]
Abdelghany, T.M. (2013) Stachybotrys chartarum: A Novel Biological Agent for the Extracellular Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles and Their Antimicrobial Activity. Indonesian Journal of Biotechnology, 18, 75-82. https://doi.org/10.22146/ijbiotech.7871
[26]
Bakri, M.M., El-Naggar, M.A., Helmy, E.A., Ashoor, M.S. and Abdel Ghany, T.M. (2020) Efficacy of Juniperus procera Constituents with Silver Nanoparticles against Aspergillus fumigatus and Fusarium chlamydosporum. BioNanoScience, 10, 62-72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12668-019-00716-x
[27]
Ganash, M., Abdel Ghany, T.M. and Omar, A.M. (2018) Morphological and Biomolecules Dynamics of Phytopathogenic Fungi under Stress of Silver Nanoparticles. BioNanoScience, 8, 566-573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12668-018-0510-y
[28]
Singh, A., et al. (2020) Green synthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles as Effective Alternatives to Treat Antibiotics Resistant Bacterial Infections: A Review. Biotechnology Reports, 25, e00427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.btre.2020.e00427
[29]
Kim, K.-J., et al. (2009) Antifungal Activity and Mode of Action of Silver Nano-Particles on Candida albicans. Biometals, 22, 235-242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10534-008-9159-2
[30]
Abdel Ghany, T.M. and Hakamy, O.M. (2014) Juniperus procera as Food Safe Additive, Their Antioxidant, Anticancer and Antimicrobial Activity against Some Food-Borne Bacteria. Journal of Biological and Chemical Research, 31, 668-677.
[31]
Harborne, A. (1998) Phytochemical Methods a Guide to Modern Techniques of Plant Analysis. Springer Science & Business Media, Berlin.
[32]
Fransworth, N. (1996) Phytochemical Methods in Medicinal Research. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 55, 225-269.
[33]
Logeswari, P., Silambarasan, S. and Abraham, J. (2013) Ecofriendly Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles from Commercially Available Plant Powders and Their Antibacterial Properties. Scientia Iranica, 20, 1049-1054.
[34]
Netai, M.-M., Stephen, N. and Musekiwa, C. (2017) Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Wild Cucumis anguria: Characterization and Antibacterial Activity. African Journal of Biotechnology, 16, 1911-1921. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB2017.16076
[35]
Wayne, P. (2006) Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Disk Susceptibility Tests. Approved Standard, Ninth Edition. Document M2-A9. CLSI.
[36]
Getasetegn, M. (2016) Chemical Composition of Catha edulis (khat): A Review. Phytochemistry Reviews, 15, 907-920. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101-015-9435-z
[37]
Verma, A., et al. (2017) Optimization of Different Reaction Conditions for the Bio-Inspired Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Aqueous Extract of Solanum nigrum Leaves. Journal of Nanomaterials & Molecular Nanotechnology, 6, 2-8. https://doi.org/10.4172/2324-8777.1000214
[38]
Sanchooli, N., et al. (2018) In Vitro Antibacterial Effects of Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized Using Verbena officinalis Leaf Extract on Yersinia ruckeri, Vibrio cholera and Listeria monocytogenes. Iranian Journal of Microbiology, 10, 400.
[39]
Kumar, K.S. and Kathireswar, P. (2016) Biological Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles (Ag-NPS) by Lawsonia inermis (Henna) Plant Aqueous Extract and Its Antimicrobial Activity against Human Pathogens. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 5, 926-937. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2016.503.107
[40]
Rajan, R., et al. (2015) Plant Extract Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles: An Ongoing Source of Novel Biocompatible Materials. Industrial Crops and Products, 70, 356-373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.03.015
[41]
Zaheer, Z. (2012) Silver Nanoparticles to Self-Assembled Films: Green Synthesis and Characterization. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 90, 48-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2011.09.037
[42]
Kokila, T., P. Ramesh, and D. Geetha (2015) Biosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles from Cavendish banana Peel Extract and Its Antibacterial and Free Radical Scavenging Assay: A Novel Biological Approach. Applied Nanoscience, 5, 911-920. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-015-0401-2
[43]
Maria, B.S., et al. (2015) Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Medicinal Zizyphus xylopyrus Bark Extract. Applied Nanoscience, 5, 755-762. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-014-0372-8
[44]
Kajani, A.A., et al. (2014) Green Synthesis of Anisotropic Silver Nanoparticles with Potent Anticancer Activity Using Taxus baccata Extract. RSC Advances, 4, 61394-61403. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4RA08758E
[45]
Shehzad, A., et al. (2018) Synthesis, Characterization and Antibacterial Activity of Silver Nanoparticles Using Rhazya stricta. PeerJ, 6, e6086. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6086
[46]
Kumar, B., et al. (2017) Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Andean Blackberry Fruit Extract. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 24, 45-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2015.09.006
[47]
Verma, A. and M.S. Mehata (2016) Controllable Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Neem Leaves and Their Antimicrobial Activity. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences, 9, 109-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrras.2015.11.001
[48]
Shankar, S.S., et al. (2004) Rapid Synthesis of Au, Ag, and Bimetallic Au Core-Ag Shell Nanoparticles Using Neem (Azadirachta indica) Leaf Broth. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 275, 496-502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2004.03.003
[49]
Ibrahim, H.M. (2015) Green Synthesis and Characterization of Silver Nanoparticles Using Banana Peel Extract and Their Antimicrobial Activity against Representative Microorganisms. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences, 8, 265-275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrras.2015.01.007
[50]
Vanaja, M., et al. (2013) Kinetic Study on Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Coleus aromaticus Leaf Extract. Advances in Applied Science Research, 4, 50-55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-012-0121-9
[51]
Dubey, S.P., Lahtinen, M. and Sillanpää, M. (2010) Tansy Fruit Mediated Greener Synthesis of Silver and Gold Nanoparticles. Process Biochemistry, 45, 1065-1071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2010.03.024
[52]
Gan, P.P. and Li, S.F.Y. (2012) Potential of Plant as a Biological Factory to Synthesize Gold and Silver Nanoparticles and Their Applications. Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology, 11, 169-206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-012-9278-7
[53]
Khalil, M.M., et al. (2014) Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Olive Leaf Extract and Its Antibacterial Activity. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 7, 1131-1139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2013.04.007
[54]
Sharma, D., Kanchi, S. and Bisetty, K. (2019) Biogenic Synthesis of Nanoparticles: A Review. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 12, 3576-3600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2015.11.002
[55]
Coates, J. (2006) Interpretation of Infrared Spectra, a Practical Approach. Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry: Applications, Theory and Instrumentation. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470027318.a5606
[56]
Smitha, S., Philip, D. and Gopchandran, K. (2009) Green Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles Using Cinnamomum zeylanicum Leaf Broth. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 74, 735-739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2009.08.007
[57]
Makarov, V., et al. (2014) “Green” Nanotechnologies: Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles Using Plants. Acta Naturae, 6, 35-44. https://doi.org/10.32607/20758251-2014-6-1-35-44
[58]
Ahmad, N., et al. (2010) Rapid Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Dried Medicinal Plant of Basil. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 81, 81-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2010.06.029
[59]
Zhang, Y., et al. (2011) Ag@ Poly(m-phenylenediamine) Core-Shell Nanoparticles for Highly Selective, Multiplex Nucleic Acid Detection. Langmuir, 27, 2170-2175. https://doi.org/10.1021/la105092f
[60]
Albers, C.E., et al. (2013) In Vitro Cytotoxicity of Silver Nanoparticles on Osteoblasts and Osteoclasts at Antibacterial Concentrations. Nanotoxicology, 7, 30-36. https://doi.org/10.3109/17435390.2011.626538
[61]
Prakash, P., et al. (2013) Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles from Leaf Extract of Mimusops elengi, Linn. for Enhanced Antibacterial Activity against Multi Drug Resistant Clinical Isolates. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 108, 255-259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2013.03.017
[62]
Bin-Meferij, M.M. and Hamida, R.S. (2019) Biofabrication and Antitumor Activity of Silver Nanoparticles Utilizing Novel Nostoc sp. Bahar M. International Journal of Nanomedicine, 14, 9019. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S230457
[63]
Mariselvam, R., et al. (2014) Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles from the Extract of the Inflorescence of Cocos nucifera (Family: Arecaceae) for Enhanced Antibacterial Activity. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 129, 537-541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2014.03.066
[64]
Jain, D., et al. (2009) Synthesis of Plant-Mediated Silver Nanoparticles Using Papaya Fruit Extract and Evaluation of Their Anti-Microbial Activities. Digest Journal of Nanomaterials and Biostructures, 4, 557-563.
[65]
Jain, S. and Mehata, M.S. (2017) Medicinal Plant Leaf Extract and Pure Flavonoid Mediated Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles and Their Enhanced Antibacterial Property. Scientific Reports, 7, Article No. 15867. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-15724-8
[66]
Shanmuganathan, R., et al. (2019) Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles and Medical Applications—A Comprehensive Review. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 25, 2650-2660. https://doi.org/10.2174/1381612825666190708185506
[67]
Liu, C., et al. (2018) Spermine Increases Bactericidal Activity of Silver-Nanoparticles against Clinical Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Chinese Chemical Letters, 29, 1824-1828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2018.10.025
[68]
Paul, S., Mohanram, K. and Kannan, I. (2018) Antifungal Activity of Curcumin-Silver Nanoparticles against Fluconazole-Resistant Clinical Isolates of Candida Species. Ayu, 39, 182. https://doi.org/10.4103/ayu.AYU_24_18
[69]
Marquez, L. and Quave, C.L. (2020) Prevalence and Therapeutic Challenges of Fungal Drug Resistance: Role for Plants in Drug Discovery. Antibiotics, 9, 150. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9040150
[70]
Osbourn, A.E. (2003) Saponins in Cereals. Phytochemistry, 62, 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(02)00393-X
