Cyanotoxins are chemical compounds produced by cyanobacterial mats grown in aquatic ecosystems. These may threaten human health and aquatic organisms. Extraction of these toxins is usually associated with many difficulties due to their concentration in aquatic ecosystems. This study is designed to provide suitable and effective extraction procedures that can effectively extract low concentration cyanotoxin from water and bacterial cells. The methodology is based on collecting raw material of cyanobacterial mats from naturally growing sites such as Wadi Gaza along with 16 liters of aquatic surrounding media. The materials were left in the Lab for 24 - 48 h for stabilization of the mats. The floating mats were collected using special funnel and allowed to air drying. The aqueous phase was extracted by liquid/liquid extraction using solvent mixture (hexane + ethylacetate 10% w:w), and by liquid solid extraction using several types of organoclays complexes. The solid phase was extracted by acetone and ultrasonic device. Results showed some difficulties were associated with liquid/liquid extraction whereas effective and easy extraction procedures were obtained by liquid solid extraction using either organoclay complex or activated charcoal. In contrast combination of both solid materials did not show improvement in the extracted cyanotoxin. Thus we recommend the use of organoclays or activated charcoal separately for extracting cyanotoxin. Further improvement of extraction can be tailored by using a specific organoclay complex that has some similarity in the chemical structure between the pre-adsorbed organic cation to the clay mineral and the chemical structure of cyanotoxin.
References
[1]
Moura, C.R. (2003) Planar Lipid Bilayers (BLMs) and Their Applications in Membrane Science and Technology. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Vol. 7, 1-1034.
[2]
Lee, J., Lee, S. and Jiang, X. (2017) Cyanobacterial Toxins in Freshwater and Food: Important Sources of Exposure to Humans. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, 8, 281-304. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-food-030216-030116
[3]
World Health Organization (2011) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/44584/1/9789241548151_eng.pdf
[4]
US EPA (2015) Drinking Water Health Advisory for the Cyanobacterial Microcystin Toxins.
[5]
US EPA (2015) Drinking Water Health Advisory for the Cyanobacterial Toxin Cylindrospermopsin.
[6]
Sivonen, K. (2009) Cyanobacterial Toxins. Encyclopedia of Microbiology. Elsevier, Oxford, 290-307. https://www.academia.edu/25481798/Toxic_Cyanobacteria
[7]
Le-Blanc, P., Merkley, N., Thomas, K., Lewis, N.I., Békri, K., Renaud, S.L., Quilliam, M.A., et al. (2020) Isolation and Characterization of [DLeu1] Microcystin-LY from Microcystis aeruginosa CPCC-464. Toxins, 12, 77. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12020077
[8]
Haque, F., Banayan, S., Yee, J. and Chiang, Y.W. (2017) Extraction and Applications of Cyanotoxins and Other Cyanobacterial Secondary Metabolites. Chemosphere, 183, 164-175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.05.106
[9]
Bryans, T.D., Braithwaite, C., Broad, J., Cooper, J.F., Darnell, K.R., Hitchins, V.M., Karren, A.J. and Lee, P.S. (2004) Bacterial Endotoxin Testing: A Report on the Methods, Background, Data, and Regulatory History of Extraction Recovery Efficiency. Biomedical Instrumentation & Technology, 38, 73-78. https://doi.org/10.2345/0899-8205(2004)38[73:BETARO]2.0.CO;2
[10]
Mashile, G.P. and Nomngongo, P.N. (2017) Recent Application of Solid Phase Based Techniques for Extraction and Preconcentration of Cyanotoxins in Environmental Matrices. Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry, 47, 119-126. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408347.2016.1225255
[11]
Chen, W., Li, L., Gan, N. and Song, L. (2006) Optimization of an Effective Extraction Procedure for the Analysis of Microcystins in Soils and Lake Sediments. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 143, 241-246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2005.11.030
[12]
Zervou, S.K., Christophoridis, C., Kaloudis, T., Triantis, T.M. and Hiskia, A. (2017) New SPE-LC-MS/MS Method for Simultaneous Determination of Multi-Class Cyanobacterial and Algal Toxins. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 323, 56-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.07.020
[13]
El-Nahhal, Y., Nir, S., Polubesova, T., Margulies, L. and Rubin, B. (1997) Organo-Clay Formulations of Alachlor: Reduced Leaching and Improved Efficacy. Proceedings of Brighton Crop Protection Conference, Weeds, Vol. 1, 21-26.
[14]
El-Nahhal, Y. (2003) Adsorptive Behavior of Acetochlor on Organoclay Complexes. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 70, 1104-1111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-003-0096-z
[15]
El-Nahhal, Y., Lagaly, G. and Rabinovitz, O. (2005) Organoclay Formulations of Acetochlor: Effect of High Salt Concentration. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 1620-1624. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf040383a
[16]
EL-Nahhal, Y. and Alshanti, A. (2015) Toxicity of Single and Mixtures Antibiotics to Cyanobacteria. Environment and Analytical Toxicology, 3, 1-8.
[17]
Schecter, A., Papke, O., Isaac, J., Hrimat, N., Neiroukh, F., Safi, J. and El-Nahhal, Y. (1997) 2,3,7,8 Chlorine Substituted Dioxins and Dibenzofuran Congeners in 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T and Pentachlorophenol. Organohalogen Compounds, 32, 51-55.
[18]
El-Nahhal, Y., Abadsa, M. and Affifi, S. (2013) Adsorption of Diuron and Linuron in Gaza Soils. American Journal of Analytical Chemistry, 4, 94-99. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajac.2013.47A013
[19]
El-Nahhal, Y. (2003) Adsorption Mechanism of Chloroacetanilide Herbicides to Modified Montmorillonite. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. Part. B, Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes, 38, 591-604. https://doi.org/10.1081/PFC-120023517
[20]
El-Nahhal, Y. and Safi, J. (2008) Removal of Pesticide Residues from Water by Organo-Bentonites. Twelfth International Water Technology Conference, Alexandria, Egypt, 1711-1724
[21]
Safi, J.M., Yassin, M.M., El-Nahhal, Y.Z., Abed, Y.A., Safi, M.J. and Suleiman, H.D. (2019) Childhood Lead Poisoning in Gaza Strip, the Palestinian Authority. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology: Organ of the Society for Minerals and Trace Elements (GMS), 54, 118-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2019.04.004
[22]
El-Nahhal, Y., Lubbad, R. and Al-Agha, M.R. (2020) Toxicity Evaluation of Chlorpyrifos and Diuron below Maximum Residue Limits in Rabbits. Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences, 12, 177-190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13530-020-00015-z
[23]
El-Nahhal, I., Redon, R., Raynaud, M., El-Nahhal, Y. and Mounier, S. (2020) Characterization of the Fate and Changes of Post-Irradiance Fluorescence Signal of Filtered Anthropogenic Effluent Dissolved Organic Matter from Wastewater Treatment Plant in the Coastal Zone of Gapeau River. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 27, 23141-23158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08842-w
[24]
El-Nahhal, I., Redon, R., Raynaud, M., El-Nahhal, Y. and Mounier, S. (2021) Modelling of Impact of Presence/Absence of Suspended Particulate Organic Matter from River and Sea and Effluent Wastewater on Fluorescence Signal in the Coastal Area of Gapeau River. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 28, 36707-36726. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13265-2
[25]
EL-Nahhal, I. and El-Nahhal, Y. (2020) Ecological Consequences of COVID-19 Outbreak. Journal of Water Science and Engineering, 1, 1-5.
[26]
El-Nahhal, Y. (2020) Pesticide Residues in Honey and Their Potential Reproductive Toxicity. Science of the Total Environment, 741, Article ID: 139953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139953
[27]
El-Nahhal, Y. (2014) Development of Controlled Release Formulations of Thiabendazole. Journal of Agricultural Chemistry and Environment, 3, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.4236/jacen.2014.31001
[28]
El-Nahhal, Y., Wheidi, B. and El-Kurdi, S. (2016) Development of Ecologically Acceptable Chlorpyrifos Formulation for Effective and Safe Application. Journal of Encapsulation and Adsorption Sciences, 6, 91-108. https://doi.org/10.4236/jeas.2016.63008
[29]
Bernard, C., Harvey, M., Briand, J.F., Biré, R., Krys, S. and Fontaine, J.J. (2003) Toxicological Comparison of Diverse Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii Strains: Evidence of Liver Damage Caused by a French C. raciborskii Strain. Environmental Toxicology: An International Journal, 18, 176-186. https://doi.org/10.1002/tox.10112
[30]
Froscio, S.M., Humpage, A.R., Burcham, P.C. and Falconer, I.R. (2003) Cylindrospermopsin-Induced Protein Synthesis Inhibition and Its Dissociation from Acute Toxicity in Mouse Hepatocytes. Environmental Toxicology, 18, 243-251. https://doi.org/10.1002/tox.10121
[31]
Mansell, H.L. (1996) Synthetic Approaches to Anatoxin A. Tetrahedron, 52, 6025-6061. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-4020(95)01076-9
[32]
Rao, P.V., Gupta, N., Bhaskar, A.S. and Jayaraj, R. (2002) Toxins and Bioactive Compounds from Cyanobacteria and Their Implications on Human Health. Journal of Environmental Biology, 23, 215-224.
[33]
Rinehart, K.L., Harada, K., Namikoshi, M., Chen, C., Harvis, C.A., Munro, M.H., Beasley, V.R., et al. (1988) Nodularin, Microcystin, and the Configuration of Adda. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 110, 8557-8558. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja00233a049
[34]
Wiegand, C. and Pflugmacher, S. (2005) Ecotoxicological Effects of Selected Cyanobacterial Secondary Metabolites: A Short Review. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 203, 201-218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2004.11.002
[35]
Stewart, I., Schluter, P.J. and Shaw, G.R. (2006) Cyanobacterial Lipopolysaccharides and Human Health—A Review. Environmental Health, 5, 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-5-7
[36]
El-Nahhal, Y. and El-Nahhal, I. (2021) Cardiotoxicity of Some Pesticides and Their Amelioration. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28, 44726-44754.
[37]
Ibelings, B.W. and Chorus, I. (2007) Accumulation of Cyanobacterial Toxins in Freshwater “Seafood” and Its Consequences for Public Health: A Review. Environmental Pollution, 150, 177-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2007.04.012
[38]
de Magalhaes, V.F., Soares, R.M. and Azevedo, S.M. (2001) Microcystin Contamination in Fish from the Jacarepagua Lagoon (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil): Ecological Implication and Human Health Risk. Toxicon, 39, 1077-1085. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0041-0101(00)00251-8
[39]
Hardy, F.J., Johnson, A., Hamel, K. and Preece, E. (2015) Cyanotoxin Bioaccumulation in Freshwater Fish, Washington State, USA. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 187, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4875-x
[40]
Funari, E. and Testai, E. (2008) Human Health Risk Assessment Related to Cyanotoxins Exposure. Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 38, 97-125. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408440701749454
[41]
Ghernaout, D. and Elboughdiri, N. (2020) Dealing with Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins: Engineering Viewpoints. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6363.
