The present study belongs to a new strand of research in learning in higher education focusing on distal and emotional factors that contribute to learning. The purpose of the study was to explore the mediating role of academic emotions in the relationship between adult attachment styles and approaches to learning. The sample consists of 527 Greek university students (72 were men and 455 were women) attending a fourth-year full degree program. They completed the following questionnaires: The Experiences in Close Relationships-Relationship Structure Questionnaire, the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire, and the Approaches to Learning and Studying Inventory. Results revealed the mediating role of academic emotions in the relationship between both types of attachment and approaches to learning. Avoidant and anxious individuals seem to keep the same pattern of behavior in their studying as they do in their interpersonal relationships. It is suggested that attachment can function as an innate emotion regulation system that modulates students’ emotions. Findings are discussed in the context of recent literature. Future implications for higher education students regarding close relationships are also discussed.
References
[1]
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.51.6.1173
[2]
Beauchamp, G., Martineau, M., & Gagnon, A. (2016). Examining the Link between Adult Attachment Style, Employment and Academic Achievement in First Semester Higher Education. Social Psychology of Education, 19, 367-384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-015-9329-3
[3]
Berry, K., & Kingswell, S. (2012). An Investigation of Adult Attachment and Coping with Exam-Related Stress. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 40, 315-325. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2012.685861
[4]
Biggs, J. (1987). Student Approaches to Learning and Studying. Victoria: Australian Council for Educational Research.
[5]
Blalock, D. V., Franzese, A. T., Machell, K. A., & Strauman, T. J. (2015). Attachment Style and Self-Regulation: How Our Patterns In Relationships Reflect Broader Motivational Styles. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 90-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.024
[6]
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and Loss: Loss—Sadness and Depression (Vol. 3). New York, NY: Basic Books.
[7]
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and Loss: Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Basic Books.
[8]
Bowlby, J. (1988). A Secure Base: Clinical Applications of Attachment Theory. Abingdon: Routledge.
[9]
Camacho-Morles, J., Slemp, G. R., Pekrun, R., Loderer, K., Hou, H., & Oades, L. G. (2021). Activity Achievement Emotions and Academic Performance: A Meta-Analysis. Educational Psychology Review. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09585-3
[10]
Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Furnham, A., & Lewis, M. (2007). Personality and Approaches to Learning Predict Preference for Different Teaching Methods. Learning and Individual Differences, 17, 241-250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2006.12.001
[11]
Chopik, W. J., Edelstein, R. S., & Grimm, K. J. (2017). Longitudinal Changes in Attachment Orientation over a 59-Year Period. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 116, 598-611. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/pspp0000167
[12]
Christie, H., Tett, L., Cree, V. E., Hounsell, J., & McCune, V. (2008). ‘A Real Rollercoaster of Confidence and Emotions’: Learning to be a University Student. Studies in Higher Education, 33, 567-581. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070802373040
[13]
Daniels, L. M., Stupnisky, R. H., Pekrun, R., Haynes, T. L., Perry, R. P., & Newall, N. E. (2009). A Longitudinal Analysis of Achievement Goals: From Affective Antecedents to Emotional Effects and Achievement Outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 948-963. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0016096
[14]
Ditlevsen, S., Christensen, U., Lynch, J., Damsgaard, M. T., & Keiding, N. (2005). The Mediation Proportion. Epidemiology, 16, 114-120. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ede.0000147107.76079.07
[15]
Drake, K., Belsky, J., & Fearon, R. M. P. (2014). From Early Attachment to Engagement with Learning in School: The Role of Self-Regulation and Persistence. Developmental Psychology, 50, 1350-1361. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0032779
[16]
Entwistle, N. J. (2018). Student Learning and Academic Understanding: A Research Perspective and Implications for Teaching. Amsterdam: Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2014-0-02037-0
[17]
Entwistle, N. J., & Ramsden, P. (1983). Understanding Student Learning. Kent: Croom Helm.
[18]
Entwistle, N. J., McCune, V., & Walker, P. (2001). Conceptions, Styles and Approaches within Higher Education: Analytical Abstractions and Everyday Experience. In R. J. Sternberg, & L.-F. Zhang (Eds.), Perspectives on Cognitive, Learning and Thinking Styles (pp. 103-136). New York, NY: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410605986-5
[19]
Entwistle, N., Tait, H., & McCune, V. (2000). Patterns of Response to an Approaches to Studying Inventory across Contrasting Groups and Contexts. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 15, Article No. 33. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03173165
[20]
Eurostat (2018). Distribution of Tertiary Education Graduates by Broad Field of Education, 2018 (%). https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statisticsexplained/index.php?title=File:Distribution_of_tertiary_education_graduates_by_broad_field_of_education,_2018_(%25)_ET2020.png
[21]
Fass, M. E., & Tubman, J. G. (2002). The Influence of Parental and Peer Attachment on College Students’ Academic Achievement. Psychology in the Schools, 39, 561-573. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10050
[22]
Feeney, B. C., & Van Vleet, M. (2010). Growing through Attachment: The Interplay of Attachment and Exploration in Adulthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27, 226-234. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0265407509360903
[23]
Fraley, R. C., & Davis, K. E. (1997). Attachment Formation and Transfer in Young Adults’ Close Friendships and Romantic Relationships. Personal Relationships, 4, 131-144. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.1997.tb00135.x
[24]
Fraley, R. C., & Hudson, N. W. (2017). The Development of Attachment Styles. In J. Specht (Ed.), Personality Development across the Lifespan (pp. 275-292). Waltham, MA: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804674-6.00017-X
[25]
Fraley, R. C., & Roisman, G. I. (2019). The Development of Adult Attachment Styles: Four Lessons. Current Opinion in Psychology, 25, 26-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.02.008
[26]
Fraley, R. C., Heffernan, M. E., Vicary, A. M., & Brumbaugh, C. C. (2011). The Experiences in Close Relationships—Relationship Structures Questionnaire: A Method for Assessing Attachment Orientations across Relationships. Psychological Assessment, 23, 615-625. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0022898
[27]
Fraley, R. C., Hudson, N. W., Heffernan, M. E., & Segal, N. (2015). Are Adult Attachment Styles Categorical or Dimensional? A Taxometric Analysis of General and Relationship-Specific Attachment Orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 354-368. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/pspp0000027
[28]
Fraley, R. C., Waller, N. G., & Brennan, K. A. (2000). An Item Response Theory Analysis of Self-Report Measures of Adult Attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 350-365. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.78.2.350
[29]
Fraley, R., Niedenthal, P. M., Marks, M., Brumbaugh, C., & Vicary, A. (2006). Adult Attachment and the Perception of Emotional Expressions: Probing the Hyperactivating Strategies Underlying Anxious Attachment. Journal of Personality, 74, 1163-1190. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00406.x
[30]
Gentzler, A. L., Kerns, K. A., & Keener, E. (2010). Emotional Reactions and Regulatory Responses to Negative and Positive Events: Associations with Attachment and Gender. Motivation and Emotion, 34, 78-92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-009-9149-x
[31]
Goetz, T., Bieleke, M., Gogol, K., van Tartwijk, J., Mainhard, T., Lipnevich, A. A., & Pekrun, R. (2021). Getting along and Feeling Good: Reciprocal Associations between Student-Teacher Relationship Quality and Students’ Emotions. Learning and Instruction, 71, Article ID: 101349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101349
[32]
Goetz, T., Nett, U. E., Martiny, S. E., Hall, N. C., Pekrun, R., Dettmers, S., & Trautwein, U. (2012). Students’ Emotions during Homework: Structures, Self-Concept Antecedents, and Achievement Outcomes. Learning and Individual Differences, 22, 225-234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.04.006
[33]
Goetz, T., Pekrun, R., Hall, N., & Haag, L. (2006). Academic Emotions from a Social-Cognitive Perspective: Antecedents and Domain Specificity of Students’ Affect in the Context of Latin Instruction. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 289-308. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709905X42860
[34]
Goodall, K. (2015). Individual Differences in the Regulation of Positive Emotion: The Role of Attachment and Self Esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 74, 208-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.10.033
[35]
Gore, J. S., & Rogers, M. J. (2010). Why Do I Study? The Moderating Effect of Attachment Style on Academic Motivation. The Journal of Social Psychology, 150, 560-578. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540903365448
[36]
Hampson, S. E. (2012). Personality Processes: Mechanisms by Which Personality Traits “Get Outside the Skin.” Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 315-339. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100419
[37]
Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical Mediation Analysis in the New Millennium. Communication Monographs, 76, 408-420. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750903310360
[38]
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach (Methodology in the Social Sciences) (2nd ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
[39]
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic Love Conceptualized as an Attachment Process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511-524. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511
[40]
Herrmann, K. J., McCune, V., & Bager-Elsborg, A. (2017). Approaches to Learning as Predictors of Academic Achievement: Results from a Large Scale, Multi-Level Analysis. Högre utbildning, 7, 29-42. https://doi.org/10.23865/hu.v7.905
[41]
Hofmann, W., Finkel, E. J., & Fitzsimons, G. M. (2015). Close Relationships and Self-Regulation: How Relationship Satisfaction Facilitates Momentary Goal Pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 434-452. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/pspi0000020
[42]
Karagiannopoulou, E., & Milienos, F. S. (2015). Testing Two Path Models to Explore Relationships between Students’ Experiences of the Teaching-Learning Environment, Approaches to Learning and Academic Achievement. Educational Psychology, 35, 26-52. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2014.895800
[43]
Karagiannopoulou, E., Milienos, F. S., & Rentzios, C. (2020). Grouping Learning Approaches and Emotional Factors to Predict Students’ Academic Progress. International Journal of School & Educational Psychology, 9, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2020.1832941
[44]
Karagiannopoulou, E., Naka, K., Kamtsios, S., Savvidou, E., & Michalis, L. (2014). Medical Students’ Approaches to Learning before and after the Cardiology Problem-Based Learning Practice. Journal of Contemporary Medical Education, 2, 152-157. https://doi.org/10.5455/jcme.20140928040405
[45]
Kember, D. (2004). Interpreting Student Workload and the Factors which Shape Students’ Perceptions of Their Workload. Studies in Higher Education, 29, 165-184. https://doi.org/10.1080/0307507042000190778
[46]
King, R. B., & Gaerlan, M. J. M. (2014). High Self-Control Predicts More Positive Emotions, Better Engagement, and Higher Achievement in School. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 29, 81-100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-013-0188-z
[47]
Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling (Methodology in the Social Sciences) (4th ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
[48]
Kogut, E. (2016). Adult Attachment Styles, Self-Efficacy, and Causal Attributional Style for Achievement-Related Failures. Learning and Individual Differences, 50, 64-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.07.001
[49]
Kurland, R. M., & Siegel, H. I. (2016). Attachment and Academic Classroom Behavior: Self-Efficacy and Procrastination as Moderators on the Influence of Attachment on Academic Success. Psychology, 7, 1061-1074. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2016.78107
[50]
Lindblom-Ylänne, S., Parpala, A., & Postareff, L. (2019). What Constitutes the Surface Approach to Learning in the Light of New Empirical Evidence? Studies in Higher Education, 44, 2183-2195. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1482267
[51]
Linnenbrink, E. A. (2007). The Role of Affect in Student Learning: A Multi-Dimensional Approach to Considering the Interaction of Affect, Motivation, and Engagement. In R. Pekrun, & P. A. Schutz (Eds.). Emotion in Education (pp. 107-124). Burlington, MA: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012372545-5/50008-3
[52]
Lopez, F. G. (1996). Attachment-Related Predictors of Constructive Thinking among College Students. Journal of Counseling & Development, 75, 58-63. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.1996.tb02315.x
[53]
Mallinckrodt, B., & Wei, M. (2005). Attachment, Social Competencies, Social Support, and Psychological Distress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 358-367. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-0167.52.3.358
[54]
Martin III, A. M., Paetzold, R. L., & Rholes, W. S. (2010). Adult Attachment and Exploration: Linking Attachment Style to Motivation and Perceptions of Support in Adult Exploration. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 32, 196-205. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973531003738452
[55]
Marton, F., & Saljo, R. (1997). Approaches to Learning. In F. Marton, D. Hounsell, & N. J. Entwistle (Eds.), The Experience of Learning. Implications for Teaching and Studying in Higher Education (2nd ed., pp. 39-58). Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press.
[56]
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2005). Attachment Theory and Emotions in Close Relationships: Exploring the Attachment-Related Dynamics of Emotional Reactions to Relational Events. Personal Relationships, 12, 149-168. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1350-4126.2005.00108.x
[57]
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2012). Attachment Theory Expanded: A Behavioral Systems Approach. In K. Deaux, & M. Snyder (Eds.), Oxford Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology (pp. 467-492). Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195398991.013.0019
[58]
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2016). Attachment in Adulthood: Structure, Dynamics, and Change (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
[59]
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2019). Attachment Orientations and Emotion Regulation. Current Opinion in Psychology, 25, 6-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.02.006
[60]
Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., & Pereg, D. (2003). Attachment Theory and Affect Regulation: The Dynamics, Development, and Cognitive Consequences of Attachment-Related Strategies. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 77-102. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024515519160
[61]
Moreau, D., Macnamara, B. N., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2019). Overstating the Role of Environmental Factors in Success: A Cautionary Note. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28, 28-33. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0963721418797300
[62]
Ng, A., & Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2019). Towards a Cross-Disciplinary Framework for Promoting Youth Wellbeing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 9, 26-42. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v9i4.999
[63]
Niculescu, A. C., Tempelaar, D. T., Dailey-Hebert, A., Segers, M., & Gijselaers, W. H. (2016). Extending the Change—Change Model of Achievement Emotions: The Inclusion of Negative Learning Emotions. Learning and Individual Differences, 47, 289-297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.12.015
[64]
Niculescu, A. C., Tempelaar, D., Dailey-Hebert, A., Segers, M., & Gijselaers, W. (2015). Exploring the Antecedents of Learning-Related Emotions and Their Relations with Achievement Outcomes. Frontline Learning Research, 3, 1-17.
[65]
Öhrstedt, M., & Lindfors, P. (2016). Linkages between Approaches to Learning, Perceived Stress and Expected and Actual Academic Outcomes among First-Semester Psychology Students. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 42, 116-129. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2016.1206856
[66]
Orehek, E., Vazeou-Nieuwenhuis, A., Quick, E., & Weaverling, G. C. (2017). Attachment and Self-Regulation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 43, 365-380. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167216685292
[67]
Parpala, A., Lindblom-Ylänne, S., Komulainen, E., & Entwistle, N. (2013). Assessing Students’ Experiences of Teaching-Learning Environments and Approaches to Learning: Validation of a Questionnaire in Different Countries and Varying Contexts. Learning Environments Research, 16, 201-215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-013-9128-8
[68]
Pekrun, R. (2006). The Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions: Assumptions, Corollaries, and Implications for Educational Research and Practice. Educational Psychology Review, 18, 315-341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-006-9029-9
[69]
Pekrun, R. (2011). Emotions as Drivers of Learning and Cognitive Development. In R. A. Calvo, & S. K. D’Mello (Eds.), New Perspectives on Affect and Learning Technologies (Vol. 3, pp. 23-39). New York, NY: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-9625-1_3
[70]
Pekrun, R. (2018). Control-Value Theory: A Social-Cognitive Approach to Achievement Emotions. In G. A. D. Liem, & D. M. McInerney (Eds.), Big Theories Revisited 2: A Volume of Research on Sociocultural Influences on Motivation and Learning (pp. 162-190). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
[71]
Pekrun, R., & Perry, R. P. (2014). Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions. In R. Pekrun, & L. Linnenbrink-Garcia (Eds.), International Handbook of Emotions in Education (pp. 120-141). New York, NY: Routledge.
[72]
Pekrun, R., & Stephens, E. J. (2012). Academic Emotions. In K. R. Harris, S. Graham, T. Urdan, S. Graham, J. M. Royer, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), APA Educational Psychology Handbook: Individual Differences and Cultural and Contextual Factors (Vol. 2, pp. 3-31). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
[73]
Pekrun, R., & Stephens, S. J. (2010). Achievement Emotions in Higher Education. In J. C. Smart (Ed.), Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research (Vol. 25, pp. 257-306). Dordrecht: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-8598-6_7
[74]
Pekrun, R., Frenzel, A., Goetz, T., & Perry, R. P. (2007). The Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions: An Integrative Approach to Emotions in Education. In P. A. Schutz, & R. Pekrun (Eds.), Emotion in Education (pp. 13-36). Waltham, MA: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012372545-5/50003-4
[75]
Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., & Titz, W. (2002). Academic Emotions in Students’ Self Regulated Learning and Achievement: A Program of Quantitative and Qualitative Research. Educational Psychologist, 37, 91-105. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3702_4
[76]
Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Daniels, L. M., Stupnisky, R. H., & Perry, R. P. (2010). Boredom in Achievement Settings: Exploring Control-Value Antecedents and Performance Outcomes of a Neglected Emotion. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 531-549. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0019243
[77]
Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Frenzel, A. C., Barchfeld, P., & Perry, R. P. (2011). Measuring Emotions in Students’ Learning and Performance: The Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ). Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36, 36-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.10.002
[78]
Postareff, L., Mattsson, M., Lindblom-Ylänne, S., & Hailikari, T. (2017). The Complex Relationship between Emotions, Approaches to Learning, Study Success and Study Progress during the Transition to University. Higher Education, 73, 441-457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-016-0096-7
[79]
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS Procedures for Estimating Indirect Effects in Simple Mediation Models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 717-731. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206553
[80]
Preacher, K. J., & Kelley, K. (2011). Effect Size Measures for Mediation Models: Quantitative Strategies for Communicating Indirect Effects. Psychological Methods, 16, 93-115. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0022658
[81]
Raykov, T., & Marcoulides, G. A. (2012). A First Course in Structural Equation Modeling. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203930687
[82]
Rentzios, C., Kamtsios, S., & Karagiannopoulou, E. (2019). The Mediating Role of Implicit and Explicit Emotion Regulation in the Relationship between Academic Emotions and Approaches to Learning. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 207, 683-692. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000001027
[83]
Respondek, L., Seufert, T., Stupnisky, R., & Nett, U. E. (2017). Perceived Academic Control and Academic Emotions Predict Undergraduate University Student Success: Examining Effects on Dropout Intention and Achievement. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article No. 243. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00243
[84]
Richardson, M., Abraham, C., & Bond, R. (2012). Psychological Correlates of University Students’ Academic Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138, 353-387. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0026838
[85]
Rucker, D. D., Preacher, K. J., Tormala, Z. L., & Petty, R. E. (2011). Mediation Analysis in Social Psychology: Current Practices and New Recommendations. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5, 359-371. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00355.x
[86]
Sander, P., & de la Fuente, J. (2020). Modelling Students’ Academic Confidence, Personality and Academic Emotions. Current Psychology, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00957-0
[87]
Sharp, J. G., Hemmings, B., Kay, R., & Atkin, C. (2018). Academic Boredom, Approaches to Learning and the Final-Year Degree Outcomes of Undergraduate Students. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 42, 1055-1077. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2017.1349883
[88]
Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2008). Adult Attachment and Cognitive and Affective Reactions to Positive and Negative Events. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 1844-1865. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00146.x
[89]
Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2011). An Attachment-Theory Framework for Conceptualizing Interpersonal Behavior. In L. M. Horowitz, & S. Strack (Ed.), Handbook of Interpersonal Psychology: Theory, Research, Assessment, and Therapeutic Interventions (pp. 17-35). Hobken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118001868.ch2
[90]
Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2014). Adult Attachment and Emotion Regulation. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of Emotion Regulation (pp. 237-250). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
[91]
Shaver, P. R., Mikulincer, M., Lavy, S., & Cassidy, J. (2009). Understanding and Altering Hurt Feelings: An Attachment-Theoretical Perspective on the Generation and Regulation of Emotions. In A. L. Vangelisti (Ed.), Feeling Hurt in Close Relationships (pp. 92-122). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511770548.007
[92]
Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in Experimental and Nonexperimental Studies: New Procedures and Recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422-445. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/1082-989X.7.4.422
[93]
Simpson, J. A., & Rholes, W. S. (2017). Adult Attachment, Stress, and Romantic Relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13, 19-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.04.006
[94]
Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic Confidence Intervals for Indirect Effects in Structural Equation Models. Sociological Methodology, 13, 290-312. https://doi.org/10.2307/270723
[95]
Spada, M. M., & Moneta, G. B. (2014). Metacognitive and Motivational Predictors of Surface Approach to Studying and Academic Examination Performance. Educational Psychology, 34, 512-523. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.814196
[96]
Trigwell, K., Ellis, R. A., & Han, F. (2012). Relations between Students’ Approaches to Learning, Experienced Emotions and Outcomes of Learning. Studies in Higher Education, 37, 811-824. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2010.549220
[97]
Tsagarakis, M., Kafetsios, K., & Stalikas, A. (2007). Reliability and Validity of the Greek Version of the Revised Experiences in Close Relationships Measure of Adult Attachment. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 23, 47-55. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.23.1.47
[98]
Vainio, M. M., & Daukantaitė, D. (2015). Grit and Different Aspects of Well-Being: Direct and Indirect Relationships via Sense of Coherence and Authenticity. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17, 2119-2147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-015-9688-7
[99]
Von Stumm, S., & Furnham, A. F. (2012). Learning Approaches: Associations with Typical Intellectual Engagement, Intelligence and the Big Five. Personality and Individual Differences, 53, 720-723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.05.014
[100]
Wardecker, B. M., Chopik, W. J., Moors, A. C., & Edelstein, R. S. (2017). Avoidant Attachment Style. In V. Ziegler-Hill, & T. K. Shackelford (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences (pp. 3252-3258). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2015-2
[101]
Winterheld, H. A. (2016). Calibrating Use of Emotion Regulation Strategies to the Relationship Context: An Attachment Perspective. Journal of Personality, 84, 369-380. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12165
[102]
Zeidner, M. (2014). Anxiety in Education. In R. Pekrun, & L. Linnenbrink-Garcia (Eds.), International Handbook of Emotions in Education (pp. 265-288). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.
[103]
Zhao, X., Lynch, J. G., & Chen, Q. (2010). Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and Truths about Mediation Analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37, 197-206. https://doi.org/10.1086/651257
