This research’s objective was to analyze
the effect of functional illiteracy on households’ living conditions in
Congo-Brazzaville. It was based on an adaptation of games’ theory proposed by Rubinstein (1996). The study used data from the 4th general census of the Congo
population and housing in 2007 (National Institute of Statistics, 2007), which
includes a population of 632,502 heads of households aged 15 - 64 at the time
of the census. Analyses were conducted with a simultaneous equation system
using the Conditional Mixed Process (CMP) algorithm developed by Roodman
(2011). Results show that functional illiteracy significantly contributes to
the precariousness of household living conditions. This result supports the
essential place of education and the mastery of literacy and numeracy in the
fight against poverty.
References
[1]
Bartus, T., & Roodman, D. (2014). Estimation of Multiprocess Survival Models with CMP. The Stata Journal, 14, 756-777. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X1401400404
[2]
Baum, C., Schaffer, M., & Stillman, S. (2003). Instrumental Variables and GMM: Estimation and Testing. Stata Journal, 3, 1-31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X0300300101
[3]
Becker, G. (1964). Human Capital: A Theoretical Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education. New York: Columbia University Press.
[4]
Bressoux, P. (2007). L’apport des modèles multiniveaux à la recherche en education. éducation et didactique, 1, 73-88. https://doi.org/10.4000/educationdidactique.168
[5]
Burchfield, S., Hua, H., Iturry, T. S., & Rocha, V. (2002). A Longitudinal Study of the Effect of Integrated Literacy and Basic Education Programs on Women’s Participation in Social and Economic Development in Bolivia. Boston, MA: World Education; Washington DC: United States Agency for International Development Office of Women in Development.
[6]
Carneiro, P., Meghir, C., & Parey, M. (2007). Maternal Education, Home Environments and the Development of Children and Adolescents. IZA Discussion Paper, No. 3072, 1-56. https://doi.org/10.1920/wp.ifs.2007.0715
[7]
Carnevale, A., Fry, R., & Lowell, L. (2001). Understanding, Speaking, Reading, Writing, and Earnings in the Immigrant Labor Market. American Economic Review, 91, 159-163. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.91.2.159
[8]
Chiswick, B. R. (1991). Speaking, Reading, and Earnings among Low-Skilled Immigrants. Journal of Labor Economics, 9, 149-170. https://doi.org/10.1086/298263
[9]
Clinton, B. (1994). The International Literacy Day, Bill Clinton Sayings and Quotes.
[10]
CNSEE (2005). Enquête Démographique et de Santé du Congo 2005. Calverton, MD: Centre National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques (CNSEE) et ORC Macro.
[11]
CNSEE (2011). Enquête Congolaise auprès des Ménages pour l’évaluation de la pauvreté. Profil de pauvreté au Congo. Rapport d’analyse QUIBB, Brazzaville: CNSEE.
[12]
CNSEE (2012). Enquête Démographique et de Santé du Congo 2011-2012. Calverton, MD: Centre National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques (CNSEE) et ICF International.
[13]
Comings, J., P., Shrestha, C., K., & Smith, C. (1992). A Secondary Analysis of a Nepalese National Literacy Program. Comparative Education Review, 36, 212-226.
https://doi.org/10.1086/447100
[14]
Desai, S., & Soumya, A. (1998). Maternal Education and Child Health: Is There a Strong Causal Relationship? Demography, 35, 71-81. https://doi.org/10.2307/3004028
[15]
Easterby-Smith, M., & Araujo, L. (1999). Organizational Learning: Current Debates and Opportunities. In M. Easterby-Smith, J. Burgoyne, & L. Araujo (Eds.), Organizational Learning and the Learning organization: Developments in Theory and Practice, SAGE, London, 1-243.
[16]
Ebbes, P., Bockenholt, U., & Wedel, M. (2004). Regressor and Random-Effects Dependencies in Multilevel Models. Statistica Neerlandica, 58, 161-178.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0039-0402.2003.00254.x
[17]
ECOM (2011). Enquête Congolaise auprès des Ménages pour l’évaluation de la pauvreté. Profil de pauvreté au Congo. Rapport d’analyse QUIBB, CNSEE, Brazzaville.
[18]
EFA Global Monitoring Report Team (2005). Education for All—The Quality Imperative. Paris: UNESCO.
[19]
Entreculturas (2007). Annual Report (80 p.)
[20]
Filmer, D., & Pritchet, L. (1999). The Impact of Public Spending on Health: Does Money Matter? Social Science & Medicine, 50, 1517-1518.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00489-X
[21]
Fouzi, M., & Abbaia, A. (2013). Les Déterminants du Rendement Scolaire en Mathématiques chez les élèves de l’Enseignement Secondaire Collégial au Maroc: Une Analyse Multiniveaux. Revue d’économie du Développement, 1, 127-158.
https://doi.org/10.3917/edd.271.0127
[22]
Frees, E., W. (2004). Longitudinal and Panel Data: Analysis and Applications for the Social Sciences (364 p.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
[23]
Glazer, J., & Rubinstein, A. (2001). Debates and Decisions: On a Rationale of Argumentation Rules. Games and Economic Behavior, 36, 158-173.
https://doi.org/10.1006/game.2000.0824
[24]
Glazer, J., & Rubinstein, A. (2004). On Optimal Rules of Persuasion. Econometrica, 72, 1715-1736. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0262.2004.00551.x
[25]
Glazer, J., & Rubinstein, A. (2005). A Game Theoretic Approach to the Pragmatics of Debates: An Expository Note. In A. Benz, G. Jaeger, & R. van Rooij (Eds.), Game Theory and Pragmatics (pp. 251-265), London: Palgrave MacMillan.
https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230285897_9
[26]
Glazer, J., & Rubinstein, A. (2006). A Study in the Pragmatics of Persuasion: A Game Theoretical Approach. Theoretical Economics, 1, 395-410.
Gonzalez, L. (2005). Nonparametric Bounds on the Returns to Language Skills. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 20, 771-795. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.795
[29]
Grilli, L., & Rampichini, C. (2006). Model Building Issues in Multilevel Linear Models with Endogenous Covariates. Working Paper, Florence: Dipartimento di Statistica, Università di Firenze.
[30]
Gujarati, D. N. (2003). Basic Econometrics (4th ed., 1027 p.). New York: McGraw Hill.
[31]
Hanchane, S., & Mostafa, T. (2010). Endogeneity Problems in Multilevel Estimation of Education Production Functions: An Analysis Using PISA Data. London: Centre for Learning and Life Chances in Knowledge Economies and Societies.
http://www.llakes.org
[32]
Hanushek, A. E. (2013). Economic Growth in Developing Countries: The Role of Human Capital. Economics of Education Review, 37, 204-212.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2013.04.005
[33]
Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (2003). The Early Catastrophe: The 30 Million Word Gap by Age 3. American Educator, Spring, 4-9.
[34]
ISQ-Institut de la Statistique du Québe (2015). Les Compétences en Littératie, en Numératie et en Résolution de Problèmes dans des Environnements Technologiques: Des Clefs pour Relever les Défis du XXIe Siècle. Rapport Québécois du Programme pour l’évaluation Internationale des Compétences des Adultes (PEICA).
[35]
Kim, J. S., & Frees, E. W. (2007). Multilevel Modeling with Correlated Effects. Psychometrika, 72, 505-533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-007-9008-1
[36]
Kim, J.-S., & Frees, E. W. (2006). Omitted Variables in Multilevel Models. Psychometrika, 71, 659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-005-1283-0
[37]
Kobiané, J.-F. (2004). Habitat et Biens d’équipement comme Indicateurs de Niveau de Vie des Ménages: Bilan Méthodologique et Application à l’Analyse de la Relation Pauvreté-Scolarisation. African Population Studies/Etude de la Population Africaine, 19, 265-283.
[38]
Kreft, I. G., & De Leeuw, J. (1998). Introducing Multilevel Modeling (160 p.). London: Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849209366
[39]
Krishna, V., & Morgan, J. (2001). A Model of Expertise. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116, 747-775. https://doi.org/10.1162/00335530151144159
[40]
Lang, K. (1986). A Language Theory of Discrimination. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 101, 363-382. https://doi.org/10.2307/1891120
[41]
Levinsohn, J. (2007). Globalization and the Returns to Speaking English in South Afria. NBER Chapters. In A. Harrison, Ed., Globalization and Poverty (pp. 629-646), Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226318004.003.0016
[42]
Lewchuk, W., Lafleche, M., WoodGreen, D. D., Goldring, L., Meisner, A., Procyk, S., Rosen, D., Shields, J., Viducis, P., & Vrankulj, S. (2013). It’s More than Poverty: Employment Precarity and Household Well-Being, Poverty and Employment Precarity in Southern Ontario. https://www.unitedwaygt.org/document.doc?id=91
[43]
Marinho, M. L. (2007). El eslabón perdido entre educación y empleo. Análisis sobre las percepciones de los jóvenes urbanos de escasos recursos en Chile. Políticas Sociales. CEPAL. Santiago de Chile.
[44]
Marschak, J. (1965). Economics of Language. Behavioral Science, 10, 135-140.
https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830100203
[45]
Mboko, I. S. B. (2015). Pauvreté des Ménages et éducation au Congo: Application d’un Modèle de Comptage à Partir des Données du RGPH 2007. In Collection Rapport de Recherche de l’ODSEF (p. 56). Québec: Observatoire Démographique et Statistique de l’Espace Francophone, Université Laval.
[46]
Mboko, I. S. B. (2018). Efficacité Interne du Système d’Enseignement Secondaire au Congo. PhD Dissertation, FSE, Université Marien Ngouabi.
[47]
Mourji, F., & Abbaia, A. (2013). Les déterminants du rendement scolaire en mathématiques chez les élèves de l'enseignement secondaire collégial au Maroc : une analyse multiniveaux. Revue d'économie du développement, 21, 127-158.
https://doi.org/10.3917/edd.271.0127
[48]
Mundlak, Y. (1978). On the Pooling of Time Series and Cross-Section Data. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 46, 69-85.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1913646
[49]
National Institute of Statistics (NIS) (2007). 4th General Census of the Population and Housing of the Congo. https://ins-congo.org
[50]
Neumann, J. V., & Morgenstern, O. (1944). Theory of Games and Economic Behavior (625 p.). Princeton: Princeton University Press.
[51]
Qian, T., Klasnja, P., & Murphy, S. A. (2020). Linear Mixed Models with Endogenous Covariates: Modeling Sequential Treatment Effects with Application to a Mobile Health Study. Statistical Science, 35, 375-390.
https://projecteuclid.org/euclid.ss/1599789693
https://doi.org/10.1214/19-STS720
[52]
Rabe-Hesketh, S., & Skrondal, A. (2012). Multilevel and Longitudinal Modeling Using Stata (3rd ed.). College Station, TX: Stata Press.
[53]
Riveros (2005). Chile en la Tarea de Medir las Brechas de Desigualdad. Seminario Internacional. Santiago de Chile: Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas (INE).
[54]
Roodman, D. (2011). Fitting Fully Observed Recursive Mixed-Process Models with CMP. The Stata Journal, 11, 159-206. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X1101100202
[55]
Rubinstein, A. (1996). Why Are Certain Properties of Binary Relations Relatively More Common in Natural Language? Econometrica, 64, 343-356.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2171786
[56]
Rubinstein, A. (2000). Economics and Language: Five Essays. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511492358
[57]
Snijders, T. A. B., & Berkhof, J. (2007). Diagnostic Checks for Multilevel Models. In J. de Leeuw, & I. Kreft (Eds.), Handbook of Multilevel Analysis (508 p.). New York: Pringer.
[58]
Sotomayor, C. (1995). Analphabétisme Fonctionnel en Amérique Latine et au Chili. Cahiers de la Recherche en éducation, 2, 555-584. https://doi.org/10.7202/1018203ar
[59]
Spector, D. (2000). Rational Debate and One-dimensional Conflict. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 115, 181-200. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355300554700
[60]
Steele, F., Vignoles, A., & Jenkins, A. (2007). The Effect of School Resources on Pupil Attainment: A Multilevel Simultaneous Equation Modelling Approach. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 170, 801-824.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-985X.2007.00476.x
[61]
Stromquist, N. P. (2005). The Political Benefits of Adult Literacy. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2006, Literacy for Life (p. 22).
[62]
Thengal, N. (2013). Social and Economic Consequences of Illiteracy. International Journal of Behavioral Social and Movement Sciences, No. 2, 124-132.
[63]
UIS-Unesco Institute of Statistics (2017). More Than One-Half of Children and Adolescents Are Not Learning Worldwide, UIS/FS/2017/ED/46.
http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/fs46- more-than-half-children-not-learning-2017-fr.pdf
[64]
UNESCO (1978). Towards a Methodology for Projecting Rates of Literacy and Educational Attainment. Paris: UNESCO. (Current Surveys and Research in Statistics, No. 28.).
[65]
UNESCO (2005). EFA Global Monitoring Report 2006. Education for All: Literacy for Life. Paris: UNESCO.
[66]
UNESCO (2006). Rapport mondial de suivi sur l'EPT: L'alphabétisation, un enjeu vital. Paris: UNESCO.
[67]
UNESCO (2016). Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action: Ensure Inclusive and Equitable Quality Education and Promote Lifelong Learning Opportunities for All.
[68]
Van Pelt, J. (2018). The Importance of Family Literacy. World Alive.
http://isaiah-king-9wxe.squarespace.com/blog?offset=1523905504564&category=Education
[69]
Vélis, J. P. (1990). Lettre d’illettrie. Nouvelles d’une contrée récemment découverte dans les pays industrialisés. Paris: La Découverte/UNESCO.
[70]
WLF (World Literacy Foundation) (2015). The Economic and Social Cost of Illiteracy: A Snapshot of Illiteracy in a Global Context. Final Report from the World Literacy Foundation (18 p.).
https://speakingbooks.com/wp-content/uploads/WLF-FINAL-ECONOMIC-REPORT.pdf
[71]
Wooldridge, J. M. (2002). Econometric Analysis of Cross-Section and Panel Data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
[72]
World Bank (2019). World Development Indicators.
https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/world-development-indicators
[73]
Yildizoglu, M. (2011). Introduction à la théorie des jeux, Manuel et exercices corrigés (2nd edition). Paris: Dunod.
[74]
Zhang, W. (2008). Language as Human Capital, Public Good, and Institution. Economic Research Journal, 2, 144-154.
[75]
Zhang, W., & Grenier, G. (2012). How Can Language Be Linked to Economics? A Survey of Two Strands of Research. Working Paper No. 1206E, Ottawa: Department of Economics, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ottawa.
