Wildland fire risk assessment and fuel management planning on federal lands in the US are complex problems that require state-of-the-art fire behavior modeling and intensive geospatial analyses. Fuel management is a particularly complicated process where the benefits and potential impacts of fuel treatments must be demonstrated in the context of land management goals and public expectations. A number of fire behavior metrics, including fire spread, intensity, likelihood, and ecological risk must be analyzed for multiple treatment alternatives. The effect of treatments on wildfire impacts must be considered at multiple scales. The process is complicated by the lack of data integration among fire behavior models, and weak linkages to geographic information systems, corporate data, and desktop office software. This paper describes our efforts to build a streamlined fuel management planning and risk assessment framework, and an integrated system of tools for designing and testing fuel treatment programs on fire-prone wildlands. 1. Introduction Wildland fire risk assessment and fuel management activities have become a major activity in the Forest Service as part of efforts to reduce the growing financial and ecological losses from catastrophic wildfires [1–4]. For instance, between 2004 and 2008, 44,000 fuel treatments were implemented across the western US as part of the National Fire Plan [5], with a large proportion of these on national forest land. The importance of fire risk assessments and fuel management will continue with urban expansion into the wildlands and climate-change effects on fire frequency [6, 7]. Fuel treatment activities encompass a wide range of operational methods including thinning (removal of small trees), mechanical treatment of fuel (i.e., mastication, grinding of surface and ladder fuels), and underburning to reduce both surface and canopy fuel to ultimately reduce the frequency of uncharacteristic wildfires [8]. The goal for specific fuel treatment projects vary widely depending on ecological conditions with respect to natural fire regimes and the spatial pattern of values deemed at risk. For instance, some treatments are designed as localized fuel breaks to minimize fire occurrence within highly valued social and ecological values [9] while others are designed to impede the spread of fire over large landscapes [10]. Both wildfire risk assessment and designing fuel management projects are difficult problems, especially on federal land where planners are required to follow complex planning processes while addressing multiple land
References
[1]
D. C. Calkin, M. A. Finney, A. A. Ager, M. P. Thompson, and K. M. Gebert, “Progress towards and barriers to implementation of a risk framework for US federal wildland fire policy and decision making,” Forest Policy and Economics, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 378–389, 2011.
[2]
USDA-USDI, “(United States Department of Agriculture and United States Department of Interior) National Fire Plan. A collaborative approach for reducing wildland fire risks to communities and the environment,” Washington, DC, USA, December 2006.
[3]
HFRA, “Healthy forest restoration act,” H.R. 1904. United States Congress, Washington, DC, USA, 2003.
[4]
T. Sexton, “U.S. Federal fuel management programs: reducing risk to communities and increasing ecosystem resilience and sustainability,” in Proceedings of the Fuels Management—How to Measure Success, Proceedings RMRS-P-41, pp. 9–12, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Portland, Ore, USA, March 2006.
[5]
T. Schoennagel, C. R. Nelson, D. M. Theobald, G. C. Carnwath, and T. B. Chapman, “Implementation of National Fire Plan treatments near the wildland-urban interface in the western United States,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 106, no. 26, pp. 10706–10711, 2009.
[6]
A. L. Westerling, H. G. Hidalgo, D. R. Cayan, and T. W. Swetnam, “Warming and earlier spring increase Western U.S. forest wildfire activity,” Science, vol. 313, no. 5789, pp. 940–943, 2006.
[7]
S. W. Running, “Is global warming causing more, larger wildfires?” Science, vol. 313, no. 5789, pp. 927–928, 2006.
[8]
J. K. Agee and C. N. Skinner, “Basic principles of forest fuel reduction treatments,” Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 211, no. 1-2, pp. 83–96, 2005.
[9]
J. K. Agee, B. Bahro, M. A. Finney et al., “The use of shaded fuelbreaks in landscape fire management,” Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 127, no. 1–3, pp. 55–66, 2000.
[10]
M. A. Finney and J. D. Cohen, “Expectation and evaluation of fuel management objectives,” in Proceedings of the Fire, Fuel Treatments, and Ecological Restoration, Proceedings RMRS-P-29, pp. 353–366, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2003.
[11]
J. F. Johnson, D. N. Bengston, D. P. Fan, and K. C. Nelson, “US policy response to the fuels management problem: an analysis of the public debate about the Healthy Forests Initiative and the Healthy Forests Restoration Act,” in Proceedings of the Fuels Management—How to Measure Success, Proceedings RMRS-P-41, pp. 59–66, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Portland, Ore, USA, March 2006.
[12]
D. L. Peterson and M. C. Johnson, “Science-based strategic planning for hazardous fuel treatment,” Fire Management Today, vol. 67, pp. 13–18, 2007.
[13]
E. D. Reinhardt and M. B. Dickinson, “First-order fire effects models for land management: overview and issues,” Fire Ecology, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 131–142, 2010.
[14]
B. M. Collins, S. L. Stephens, J. J. Moghaddas, and J. Battles, “Challenges and approaches in planning fuel treatments across fire-excluded forested landscapes,” Journal of Forestry, vol. 108, no. 1, pp. 24–31, 2010.
[15]
P. Andrews, M. Finney, and M. Fischetti, “Predicting wildfires,” Scientific American, vol. 297, no. 2, pp. 47–55, 2007.
[16]
J. McDaniel, “The emergence and potential of new wildfire risk assessment tools,” Wildfire Lessons Learned, pp. 1–7, 2009.
[17]
J. H. Scott, “NEXUS: a system for assessing crown fire hazard,” Fire Management Notes, vol. 59, pp. 21–24, 1999.
[18]
S. A. Rebain, “The fire and fuels extension to the forest vegetation simulator: updated model documentation,” Tech. Rep., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Management Service Center, Fort Collins, Colo, USA, 2010.
[19]
M. A. Finney, “FARSITE: fire area simulator—model development and evaluation,” Tech. Rep. RMRS-RP-4, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah, USA, 1998.
[20]
M. A. Finney, “An overview of FlamMap fire modeling capabilities,” in Proceedings of the Fuels Management-How to Measure Success, pp. 213–220, Portland, Ore, USA, March 2006.
[21]
P. L. Andrews, “BehavePlus fire modeling system: past, present, and future,” in Proceedings of 7th Symposium on Fire and Forest Meteorological Society, pp. 1–13, Bar Harbor, Maine, October 2007.
[22]
M. A. Finney, I. C. Grenfell, C. W. McHugh et al., “A method for ensemble wildland fire simulation,” Environmental Modeling and Assessment, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 153–167, 2011.
[23]
J. Zachariassen, K. F. Zeller, N. Nikolov, and T. McClelland, “Are view of the Forest Service remote automated weather station (RAWS) network,” Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-119, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colo, USA, 2003.
[24]
B. Butler, M. Finney, L. Bradshaw, et al., “WindWizard: a new tool for fire management decision support,” in Proceedings of the Fuels Management—How to Measure Success, Proceedings RMRS-P-41, p. 809, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Portland, Ore, USA, March 2006.
[25]
USDA, “(United States Department of Agriculture) KCFAST: Kansas City fire access software user’s guide,” U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management, Washington, DC, USA, 1996.
[26]
R. D. Stratton, “Guidance on spatial wildland fire analysis: models, tools, and techniques,” Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-183, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colo, USA, 2006.
[27]
M. A. Finney, R. C. Seli, C. W. McHugh, A. A. Ager, B. Bahro, and J. K. Agee, “Simulation of long-term landscape-level fuel treatment effects on large wildfires,” International Journal of Wildland Fire, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 712–727, 2007.
[28]
M. A. Finney, “Chapter 9, Landscape fire simulation and fuel treatment optimization,” Methods for Integrated Modeling of Landscape Change: Interior Northwest Landscape Analysis, System PNW-GTR 610, US Forest Service, Portland, Ore, USA, 2004.
[29]
USDA, “(United States Department of Agriculture) Omnibus Public Land Management Act of 2009,” Title IV: Landscape Restoration. PL 111-11, 2009.
[30]
NEPA, “National Environmental Policy Act,” 42 U.S.C., USA, 1969.
[31]
F. A. Albini, “Estimating wildfire behavior and effects,” Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-30, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah, USA, 1976.
[32]
F. A. Albini, “Spot fire distance from burning trees- a predictive model,” Tech. Rep. INT-56, USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah, USA, 1979.
[33]
H. E. Anderson, “Predicting wind-driven wildland fire size and shape,” Tech. Rep. INT-305, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah, USA, 1983.
[34]
C. E. Van Wagner, “Conditions for the start and spread of crown fire,” Canadian Journal of Forest Research, vol. 7, pp. 23–34, 1977.
[35]
R. C. Rothermel, “Predicting behavior and size of crown fires in the Northern Rocky Mountains,” Tech. Rep. INT-438, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Rearch Station, Ogden, Utah, USA, 1991.
[36]
J. H. Scott and E. D. Reinhardt, “Assessing crown fire potential by linking models of surface and crown fire behavior,” Tech. Rep. RMRS-RP-29, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colo, USA, 2001.
[37]
E. D. Reinhardt and N. L. Crookston, “The fire and fuels extension to the forest vegetation simulator,” Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-116, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Ogden, Utah, USA, 2003.
[38]
M. A. Finney, “An overview of FlamMap fire modeling capabilities,” in Proceedings of the Fuels Management-How to Measure Success, pp. 28–30, USDA, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Portland, Ore, USA, March 2006.
[39]
D. L. Peterson, L. Evers, R. A. Gravenmier, and E. Eberhardt, “A consumer guide: tools to manage vegetation and fuels,” Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-690, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, Ore, USA, 2007.
[40]
C. W. McHugh, “Considerations in the use of models available for fuel treatment analysis,” in Proceedings of the Fuels Management-How to Measure Success, Proceedings RMRS-P-41, pp. 81–105, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Portland, Ore, USA, March 2006.
[41]
K. T. Chang, Programming ArcObjects with VBA: A Task Oriented Approach, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla, USA, 2004.
[42]
J. M. Varner and C. R. Keyes, “Fuels treatments and fire models: errors and corrections,” Fire Management Today, vol. 69, pp. 47–50, 2009.
[43]
W. E. Mell, S. L. Manzello, A. Maranghides, D. Butry, and R. G. Rehm, “The wildland-urban interface fire problem—current approaches and research needs,” International Journal of Wildland Fire, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 238–251, 2010.
[44]
M. G. Cruz and M. E. Alexander, “Assessing crown fire potential in coniferous forests of western North America: a critique of current approaches and recent simulation studies,” International Journal of Wildland Fire, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 377–398, 2010.
[45]
R. C. Rothermel, “A mathematical model for predicting fire spread in wildland fuels,” Tech. Rep. INT-1 15, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station Research, 1972.
[46]
C. E. Van Wagner, “Prediction of crown fire behavior in two stands of jack pine,” Canadian Journal of Forest Research, vol. 23, pp. 442–449, 1993.
[47]
J. Scott and E. Reinhardt, “Assessing crown fire potential by linking models of surface and crown fire behavior,” Tech. Rep. RMRS-RP-29, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colo, USA, 2001.
[48]
K. Stephan, M. Miller, and M. B. Dickinson, “First-order fire effects on herbs and shrubs: present knowledge and process modeling needs,” Fire Ecology, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 95–114, 2010.
[49]
K. L. Kavanagh, M. B. Dickinson, and A. S. Bova, “A way forward for fire-caused tree mortality prediction: modeling a physiological consequence of fire,” Fire Ecology, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 80–94, 2010.
[50]
B. W. Butler and M. B. Dickinson, “Tree injury and mortality in fires: developing process-based models,” Fire Ecology, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 55–79, 2010.
[51]
W. J. Massman, J. M. Frank, and S. J. Mooney, “Advancing investigation and physical modeling of first-order fire effects on soils,” Fire Ecology, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 36–54, 2010.
[52]
N. L. Crookston and G. E. Dixon, “The forest vegetation simulator: a review of its structure, content, and applications,” Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 60–80, 2005.
[53]
A. A. Ager, M. A. Finney, A. Mcmahan, and J. Cathcart, “Measuring the effect of fuel treatments on forest carbon using landscape risk analysis,” Natural Hazards and Earth System Science, vol. 10, no. 12, pp. 2515–2526, 2010.
[54]
A. A. Ager, A. J. McMahan, J. J. Barrett, and C. W. McHugh, “A simulation study of thinning and fuel treatments on a wildland-urban interface in eastern Oregon, USA,” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 80, no. 3, pp. 292–300, 2007.
[55]
A. A. Ager, M. A. Finney, B. K. Kerns, and H. Maffei, “Modeling wildfire risk to northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) habitat in Central Oregon, USA,” Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 246, no. 1, pp. 45–56, 2007.
[56]
M. A. Finney, “A computational method for optimising fuel treatment locations,” International Journal of Wildland Fire, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 702–711, 2007.
[57]
R. J. Derose and J. N. Long, “Wildfire and spruce beetle outbreak: simulation of interacting disturbances in the central rocky mountains,” Ecoscience, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 28–38, 2009.
[58]
M. Hurteau and M. North, “Fuel treatment effects on tree-based forest carbon storage and emissions under modeled wildfire scenarios,” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, vol. 7, no. 8, pp. 409–414, 2009.
[59]
R. McGaughey, “Visualizing forest stand dynamics using the Stand Visualization System,” in Proceedingsof the ACSM/ASPRS Annual Convention and Exposition, American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Bethesda, Md, USA, 1997.
[60]
J. K. Agee and M. R. Lolley, “Thinning and prescribed fire effects on fuels and potential fire behavior in an Eastern Cascades forest, Washington, USA,” Fire Ecology, vol. 2, pp. 3–19, 2006.
[61]
D. A. Perry, H. Jing, A. Youngblood, and D. R. Oetter, “Forest structure and fire susceptibility in volcanic landscapes of the eastern high Cascades, Oregon,” Conservation Biology, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 913–926, 2004.
[62]
J. P. Roccaforte, P. Z. Fulé, and W. W. Covington, “Landscape-scale changes in canopy fuels and potential fire behaviour following ponderosa pine restoration treatments,” International Journal of Wildland Fire, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 293–303, 2008.
[63]
F. A. Heinsch and P. L. Andrews, “BehavePlus fire modeling system, version 5.0: design and features,” Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-249, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colo, USA, 2010.
[64]
N. M. Vaillant, J. Fites-Kaufman, A. L. Reiner, E. K. Noonan-Wright, and S. N. Dailey, “Effect of fuel treatments on fuels and potential fire behavior in California, USA, national forests,” Fire Ecology, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 14–29, 2009.
[65]
J. S. Glitzenstein, D. R. Streng, G. L. Achtemeier, L. P. Naeher, and D. D. Wade, “Fuels and fire behavior in chipped and unchipped plots: implications for land management near the wildland/urban interface,” Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 236, no. 1, pp. 18–29, 2006.
[66]
W. Page and M. J. Jenkins, “Predicted fire behavior in selected mountain pine beetle-infested lodgepole pine,” Forest Science, vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 662–674, 2007.
[67]
D. A. Schmidt, A. H. Taylor, and C. N. Skinner, “The influence of fuels treatment and landscape arrangement on simulated fire behavior, Southern Cascade range, California,” Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 255, no. 8-9, pp. 3170–3184, 2008.
[68]
P. L. Andrews, C. D. Bevins, and R. C. Seli, “BehavePlus fire modeling system, version 3.0: user's guide,” Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-106WWW, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Ogden, Utah, USA, 2005.
[69]
J. J. Moghaddas, B. M. Collins, K. Menning, E. E. Y. Moghaddas, and S. L. Stephens, “Fuel treatment effects on modeled landscape-level fire behavior in the northern Sierra Nevada,” Canadian Journal of Forest Research, vol. 40, no. 9, pp. 1751–1765, 2010.
[70]
R. E. Keane, S. A. Drury, E. C. Karau, P. F. Hessburg, and K. M. Reynolds, “A method for mapping fire hazard and risk across multiple scales and its application in fire management,” Ecological Modelling, vol. 221, no. 1, pp. 2–18, 2010.
[71]
A. A. Ager, N. M. Vaillant, and M. A. Finney, “A comparison of landscape fuel treatment strategies to mitigate wildland fire risk in the urban interface and preserve old forest structure,” Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 259, no. 8, pp. 1556–1570, 2010.
[72]
J. H. Scott and R. E. Burgan, “Standard fire behavior fuel models: a comprehensive set for use with Rothermel's surface fire spread model,” Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-153, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2005.
[73]
H. E. Anderson, “Aids to determining fuel models for estimating fire behavior,” Tech. Rep. INT-122, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah, USA, 1982.
[74]
M. G. Rollins, “LANDFIRE: a nationally consistent vegetation, wildland fire, and fuel assessment,” International Journal of Wildland Fire, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 235–249, 2009.
[75]
M. A. Finney, “Fire growth using minimum travel time methods,” Canadian Journal of Forest Research, vol. 32, no. 8, pp. 1420–1424, 2002.
[76]
W. W. Hargrove, J. P. Spruce, G. E. Gasser, and F. M. Hoffman, “Toward a national early warning system for forest disturbances using remotely sensed canopy phenalogy,” Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, vol. 75, no. 10, pp. 1150–1156, 2009.
[77]
R. A. Wilson, “Reformulation for forest fire spread equations in SI units,” Tech. Rep. INT-292, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Ogden, Utah, USA, 1980.
[78]
G. M. Byram, “Combustion of forest fuels,” Forest Fire: Control and Use, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, USA, 1959.
[79]
M. E. Alexander, “Help with making crown fire hazard assessments,” in Proceedings of the Symposium and Workshop on Protecting People and Homes from Wildfire in the Interior West, pp. 147–156, USDA Forest Service, 1988, General Technical Report INT-251.
[80]
M. A. Finney, R. C. Seli, C. W. McHugh, A. A. Ager, B. Bahro, and J. K. Agee, “Simulation of long-term landscape-level fuel treatment effects on large wildfires,” in Proceedingsof the Fuels Management-How to Measure Success, pp. 125–148, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Portland, Ore, USA, 2006, Proceedings RMRS-P-41.
[81]
I. Knight and J. Coleman, “A fire perimeter expansion algorithm based on Huygens’ wavelet propagation,” International Journal of Wildland Fire, vol. 3, pp. 73–84, 1993.
[82]
M. A. Finney, “A method for Fnsemble Wildland Five Simulation,” Environmental Modeling and Assessment, vol. 16, pp. 153–167.
[83]
WFDSS, “Wildland fire decision support systems,” 2010.
[84]
FPA, “Fire Program Analysis,” 2010, http://www.fpa.nifc.gov/.
[85]
G. E. Dixon, “Essential FVS: A user's guide to the Forest Vegetation Simulator,” Tech. Rep., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Management Service Center, Fort Collins, Colo, USA, 2003.
[86]
W. Mell, M. A. Jenkins, J. Gould, and P. Cheney, “A physics-based approach to modelling grassland fires,” International Journal of Wildland Fire, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 1–22, 2007.
[87]
R. Linn, J. Reisner, J. J. Colman, and J. Winterkamp, “Studying wildfire behavior using FIRETEC,” International Journal of Wildland Fire, vol. 11, no. 3-4, pp. 233–246, 2002.
[88]
J. D. Cohen, M. A. Finney, and K. M. Yedinak, “Active spreading crown fire characteristics: implications for modeling,” in Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Forest Fire Research, Figueira da Foz, Portugal, November 2006.
[89]
J. H. Scott, “Comparison of crown fire modeling systems used in three fire management applications,” Tech. Rep. RMRS-RP-58, USDA Forest Service Research, 2006.
[90]
E. Reinhardt, J. Scott, K. Gray, and R. Keane, “Estimating canopy fuel characteristics in five conifer stands in the western United States using tree and stand measurements,” Canadian Journal of Forest Research, vol. 36, no. 11, pp. 2803–2814, 2006.
[91]
R. W. Sando and C. H. Wick, “A method of evaluating crown fuels in forest stands,” Tech. Rep. NC-84, United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, Minn, USA, 1972.
[92]
T. Pattison, Programming Distributed Applications with COM and Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0, Microsoft Press, Redmond, Wash, USA, 1998.
[93]
N. L. Crookston, D. L. Gammel, and S. Rebain, “User's guide to the database extension of the forest vegetation simulator version 2.0,” Tech. Rep., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Management Service Center, Fort Collins, Colo, USA, 2004.
[94]
A. A. Ager, “Automating the fireshed assessment process with ArcGIS,” in Proceedings of the Fuels Management—How to Measure Success, Proceedings RMRS-P41, pp. 163–168, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Portland, Ore, USA, March 2006.
[95]
A. A. Ager, N. M. Vaillant, J. Anderson, and L. Miller, “ArcFuels User Guide: for use with ArcGIS 9.X,” Tech. Rep., US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Western Wildland Environmental Threat Assessment Center, Prineville, Ore, USA, 2011.
[96]
D. Calkin, A. Ager, M. Thompson, et al., “Comparative risk assessment framework for wildland fire management: the 2010 cohesive strategy science report,” Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-262, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Missoula, Mont, USA, 2011, p. 62.
[97]
M. A. Finney, “The challenge of quantitative risk analysis for wildland fire,” Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 211, no. 1-2, pp. 97–108, 2005.
[98]
M. A. Finney, C. W. McHugh, and I. C. Grenfell, “Stand- and landscape-level effects of prescribed burning on two Arizona wildfires,” Canadian Journal of Forest Research, vol. 35, no. 7, pp. 1714–1722, 2005.
[99]
M. D. Hurteau, G. W. Koch, and B. A. Hungate, “Carbon protection and fire risk reduction: toward a full accounting of forest carbon offsets,” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, vol. 6, no. 9, pp. 493–498, 2008.
[100]
M. A. Finney, “Design of regular landscape fuel treatment patterns for modifying fire growth and behavior,” Forest Science, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 219–228, 2001.
[101]
N. L. Crookston and A. R. Stage, “User's guide to the parallel processing extension of the prognosis model,” Tech. Rep. IN-281, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, Utah, USA, 1991.
[102]
E. Z. Baskent and S. Keles, “Spatial forest planning: a review,” Ecological Modelling, vol. 188, no. 2–4, pp. 145–173, 2005.
[103]
V. C. Radeloff, R. B. Hammer, S. I. Stewart, J. S. Fried, S. S. Holcomb, and J. F. McKeefry, “The wildland-urban interface in the United States,” Ecological Applications, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 799–805, 2005.
[104]
D. E. Calkin, A. A. Ager, J. Gilbertson-Day, et al., “Wildfire risk and hazard: procedures for the first approximation,” Tech. Rep. GTR-RMRS-235, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colo, USA, 2010.
[105]
M. A. Finney, C. W. McHug, I. C. Grenfell, K. L. Riley, and K. C. Short, “A simulation of probabilistic wildfire risk components for the continental United States,” Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment, 2011.
[106]
M. P. Thompson, D. E. Calkin, M. A. Finney, A. A. Ager, and J. W. Gilbertson-Day, “Integrated national-scale assessment of wildfire risk to human and ecological values,” Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment, vol. 25, pp. 761–780, 2011.
[107]
USDA, “(United States Department of Agriculture) Environmental impact statement: Five Buttes project,” Forest Service. Crescent Ranger District, Deschutes National Forest, Oregon, USA, June 2007.
[108]
M. North, M. Hurteau, and J. Innes, “Fire suppression and fuels treatment effects on mixed-conifer carbon stocks and emissions,” Ecological Applications, vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 1385–1396, 2009.
[109]
E. Reinhardt and L. Holsinger, “Effects of fuel treatments on carbon-disturbance relationships in forests of the northern Rocky Mountains,” Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 259, no. 8, pp. 1427–1435, 2010.
[110]
A. J. Finkral and A. M. Evans, “The effects of a thinning treatment on carbon stocks in a northern Arizona ponderosa pine forest,” Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 255, no. 7, pp. 2743–2750, 2008.
[111]
S. R. Mitchell, M. E. Harmon, and K. E. B. O'Connell, “Forest fuel reduction alters fire severity and long-term carbon storage in three Pacific Northwest ecosystems,” Ecological Applications, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 643–655, 2009.
[112]
B. Bahro, K. H. Barber, J. W. Sherlock, and D. A. Yasuda, “Stewardship and fireshed assessment: a process for designing a landscape fuel treatment strategy,” Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-203, USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest Research Station, 2007.
[113]
D. M. Gercke and S. A. Stewart, “Strategic placement of treatments (SPOTS): maximizing the effectiveness of fuel and vegetation treatments on problem fire behavior and effects,” in Proceedings of the 1st Fire Behavior and Fuels Conference: Fuels Management—How to Measure Success, Portland, Ore, USA, March 2006.
[114]
G. Wells, “A powerful new planning environment for fuels managers: the Interagency Fuels Treatment Decision Support System,” Fire Science Digest, vol. 7, p. 11, 2009.
[115]
S. A. Drury and J. M. Herynk, “The national tree-list layer: a seamless, spatially explicit tree-list layer for the continental United States,” Tech. Rep. GTR-254, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2011.
[116]
J. L. Ohmann and M. J. Gregory, “Predictive mapping of forest composition and structure with direct gradient analysis and nearest-neighbor imputation in coastal Oregon, U.S.A,” Canadian Journal of Forest Research, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 725–741, 2002.
[117]
D. Hamilton, J. Jones, and W. Hann, “Fire behavior assessment tool (FBAT) for ArcGIS 9.2-9.3 (version 1.3.0),” National Interagency Fuels Technology Team, 2007, http://www.niftt.gov/.
[118]
D. Hamilton, J. Bramel, D. Helmbrecht, J. Jones, and W. Hann, “First order fire effects model mapping tool (FOFEMMT) for ArcGIS 9.2-9.3 (version 1.1.0),” National Interagency Fuels, Fire, and Vegetation Technology Transfer, 2009, http://www.niftt.gov/.
[119]
L. Hutter, J. Jones, W. Hann, and M. Levesque, “Area Change Tool (ACT) for ArcGIS 9.2-9.3 (version 3.0.2),” National Interagency Fuels, Fire, & Vegetation Technology Transfer, 2009, http://www.niftt.gov/.
[120]
GAO, “(Government Accounting Office) Wildland fires: Forest Service and BLM need better information and a systematic approach for assessing the risks of environmental effects,” Tech. Rep. GAO-04-705, GAO, Washington, DC, USA, June 2004.
[121]
OIG, “(Office of Inspector General) Audit report: implementation of the healthy forests initiative,” Tech. Rep. 08601-6-AT, OIG, Washington, DC, USA, September 2006.
